The Handbook of Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Title page......Page 5
Copyright page......Page 6
Contents......Page 9
Acknowledgments......Page 13
Contributors......Page 14
Introduction......Page 23
Part I: Overview and Foundations......Page 27
Introduction......Page 29
Introduction......Page 31
A Multilingual World......Page 33
Classifying Multilingualism......Page 34
Dealing with Multilingual Realities......Page 36
The Definition and Measurement of Personal Fluencies......Page 37
The Bilingual or Multilingual Individual......Page 40
Perspectives on Theory and Practice......Page 43
Language and Identity......Page 45
Notes......Page 49
References......Page 50
2: Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Bilingualism and Multilingualism Research......Page 52
Linguistic diversity: What does it mean?......Page 53
Language contact......Page 55
Learning, using, and managing multiple languages......Page 56
Research Traditions and Methodological Perspectives......Page 60
Psycholinguistic approaches......Page 61
Linguistic approaches......Page 67
Sociolinguistic approaches......Page 69
Towards a Transdisciplinarity: Challenges and Future Directions......Page 71
References......Page 73
Part II: Neurological and Psychological Aspects of Bilingualism and Multilingualism......Page 79
Introduction......Page 81
The Neurology of Bilingualism and Multilingualism......Page 85
Introduction......Page 87
Issues in the Case Literature on Bilingual or Polyglot Aphasias......Page 88
Methodological Concerns in the Bilingual Aphasia Case Literature......Page 95
The declarative/procedural memory model......Page 97
The inhibitory control model......Page 100
Hierarchical (translation) models......Page 104
References......Page 105
Approaches to Bilingualism, Multilingualism, and Second-Language Acquisition......Page 111
Introduction......Page 113
Speech Perception......Page 114
Speech Production......Page 117
Word Learning......Page 119
Morphology, Syntax, Language Differentiation, and Cross-Linguistic Influence......Page 122
Cognitive Correlates of Bilingualism......Page 125
More to Bilingual Acquisition: Similarities, Differences, Challenges, and Opportunities......Page 128
References......Page 130
Introduction......Page 135
Definitions of Bilinguals and Multilinguals......Page 136
The Complexity of Understanding Bilingualism and Multilingualism......Page 138
Conceptualizing and Assessing Language Proficiency......Page 142
Age and L2 Acquisition......Page 148
The Interaction between L1 and L2 (or Additional Nonnative Languages)......Page 152
Conclusion......Page 155
References......Page 156
Introduction......Page 163
The issue of access to Universal Grammar in L2 acquisition......Page 164
The issue of ‘transfer’ from L1 to L2......Page 165
Multilingual Acquisition......Page 167
Theoretical Background......Page 171
The complementizer phrase (CP) setup......Page 172
Results......Page 173
Berkes and Flynn......Page 176
Research Focus......Page 179
Predictions......Page 180
Design and subjects’ data......Page 181
Results......Page 182
Discussion......Page 186
Conclusions......Page 187
References......Page 188
Some Variables that Characterize Bilinguals......Page 194
Heritage Language Speakers......Page 196
Linguistic Competence in the Heritage Language......Page 199
From First and Primary Language to Secondary Language......Page 202
Is the Heritage Language Like a Second Language?......Page 207
Outstanding Issues......Page 210
References......Page 212
Bilingual and Multilingual Language Use: Knowledge, Comprehension, and Production......Page 217
Introduction......Page 219
Morpho-syntax......Page 220
Interference......Page 221
Code-mixing......Page 224
Code-mixing and interference......Page 229
L1-oriented or L2-oriented?......Page 231
Categorial distinctions......Page 234
New Research Methodologies......Page 235
Concluding Remarks......Page 237
References......Page 238
9: The Comprehension of Words and Sentences in Two Languages......Page 242
Language nonselectivity in bilingual word recognition......Page 243
The scope of cross-language activation......Page 245
The nature of cross-language activation......Page 247
Other aspects of bilingual lexical processing......Page 249
The Comprehension of Sentences in Two Languages......Page 250
Shallow structures all the way through?......Page 251
Relative clauses ambiguity resolution......Page 252
Recent challenges to the shallow structure hypothesis......Page 254
The native-like processing of a second language......Page 255
Processing a native language like a second language......Page 258
Conclusions......Page 260
References......Page 262
Introduction......Page 270
Monolingual speech production......Page 271
Bilingual Production at the Pre-lexical Level......Page 272
Bilingual Production at the Lexical Level......Page 273
Two words for one concept......Page 274
The bilingual disadvantage......Page 279
Cognate effects......Page 281
Post-lexical Processing......Page 283
Summary and Conclusions......Page 285
References......Page 286
Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Memory, Cognition, and Emotion......Page 293
Early Theoretical Formulations......Page 295
The Bilingual Coordinate–Compound Distinction......Page 297
One- vs. Two-Memory Systems......Page 298
The Bilingual Dual Coding Model......Page 299
Word association and concept mediation models......Page 302
The revised hierarchical model......Page 303
The distributed conceptual feature model of bilingual memory representations......Page 307
Bilingual Lexical Access......Page 310
Acknowledgments......Page 312
References......Page 313
Introduction......Page 318
Emotional expression in the native language vs. a second language......Page 319
Bilingual autobiographical memory and encoding specificity......Page 321
Bilingual autobiographical memory and the self......Page 323
False memories......Page 324
Code-Switching......Page 325
Implications of code-switching......Page 327
Disadvantages and benefits to using interpreters in therapy......Page 329
Training and education for interpreters......Page 331
Cultural differences and norms......Page 332
Utilization of mental health services by minority populations......Page 333
Cultural barriers in treatment with bilinguals......Page 334
Training multicultural counselors......Page 335
Culturally specific techniques in therapy......Page 336
Conclusions and Directions for Future Research......Page 339
References......Page 340
The Bilingual’s and Multilingual’s Repertoire: Code-Mixing, Code-Switching, and Communication Accommodation......Page 347
13: Code-Switching and Grammatical Theory......Page 349
Constraints on Code-Switching, Constraints on Syntax......Page 350
The Emergence of Theoretical Approaches to Code-Switching......Page 351
A Minimalist Approach to Code-Switching......Page 361
Code-switching in head movement contexts......Page 363
Phonological restrictions on code-switching......Page 366
Code-switching in adjective-noun contexts......Page 369
Code-switching with pronouns and lexical DPs......Page 371
Conclusions......Page 372
References......Page 373
Bimodal Bilingualism......Page 377
Availability and Employment of Bimodal Mixing Options......Page 379
A minimalist assumption......Page 381
Types of bimodal mixing......Page 382
Sequential properties of bimodal CS......Page 383
Simultaneous properties of bimodal mixing......Page 386
Contact signing......Page 387
Bimodal mixing in languages with different word orders......Page 389
Lexical/semantic compatibility in bimodal mixing......Page 390
Bimodal lexical compounds and simultaneity......Page 391
Nonparallel lexical derivations......Page 393
Summary of bimodal mixing characteristics......Page 395
Minimalist assumptions for bimodal mixing......Page 396
References......Page 397
Preliminary remarks......Page 401
Four Questions......Page 402
The systematicity of LM/S......Page 403
Motivations for language choice and mixing......Page 404
Societal evaluation of language mixing......Page 414
References......Page 415
16: Accommodating Multilinguality......Page 417
CAT: A Brief Overview of Some Basic Concepts and Processes......Page 419
Strategies of convergence and divergence: motives and evaluations......Page 420
A Social Psychologically-Oriented Model of Bilingual and Multilingual Accommodation......Page 425
Intergroup context......Page 426
Sociolinguistic setting......Page 429
Social psychological processes......Page 431
Epilogue......Page 433
References......Page 435
Introduction......Page 443
What are gestures?......Page 444
Culture- and language-specific gestural repertoires in production......Page 445
How are gestures studied?......Page 446
Bilingual Children and Gestures......Page 447
Proficiency and compensation......Page 450
Cross-linguistic influences and use of two languages......Page 451
Bilingual interaction......Page 454
Bi-modal bilingualism......Page 455
References......Page 457
Part III: Societal Bilingualism/Multilingualism and its Effects......Page 465
Introduction......Page 467
Language Contact, Maintenance, and Endangerment......Page 469
Types of bilingual and multilingual speech communities......Page 471
Defining communities......Page 472
The nation-state as a multilingual speech community......Page 474
The composition of multilingual nation-states......Page 475
Indigenous vs. immigrant minorities......Page 478
Diglossia and Domains of Language Use in Bilingual Communities......Page 479
The Changing Face of Multilingualism in the Modern World and the Decline of Small Speech Communities......Page 482
The regulation of bilingualism within multilingual nation-states......Page 484
De jure vs. de facto bilingualism......Page 485
Conclusion......Page 489
References......Page 490
Language Shift as the Societal Norm......Page 492
Local and periodic ups and downs vs. straight-line trends......Page 494
Intergenerational NEMT transmission......Page 499
Minority languages in the national interest......Page 501
Making the World Safe (or at Least Safer) for Cultural Democracy......Page 502
Permissive language defense......Page 505
Active language defenses......Page 506
Preventive (proactive) defenses of threatened multilingualism in the USA......Page 507
Can Language Shift Be Reversed?......Page 508
What is reversing language shift (RLS)?......Page 509
A conceptually parsimonious approach to describing and prescribing: The Graded Intergenerational Dislocation Scale (GIDS)......Page 510
A glance at a few selected cases......Page 515
Concluding and Summary Observations......Page 518
References......Page 519
Introduction: Connecting Linguistic Imperialism with Endangered Languages......Page 521
The State of the World’s Endangered Languages......Page 522
Linguistic Imperialism Past and Present......Page 525
Diverse Approaches to Language Dominance: Methodological and Theoretical Challenges......Page 529
Encouraging Examples of Change that Strengthen Endangered Languages and Multilingualism......Page 536
Acknowledgments......Page 537
References......Page 538
Indigenization......Page 543
Sociohistorical contexts for indigenization......Page 545
Contact-induced language change......Page 546
Psycholinguistic processes in indigenization......Page 547
Sociolinguistic processes in indigenization: Emergence of new norms......Page 555
Creolization......Page 556
Sociohistorical contexts for creole formation......Page 557
Psycholinguistic processes in creolization......Page 558
Sociolinguistic processes in creole formation: Emergence of new norms......Page 563
References......Page 564
Introduction......Page 568
Differences in parental childrearing beliefs and practices......Page 569
Quality of family communication......Page 570
Planning......Page 574
Negotiation......Page 576
Notes......Page 583
References......Page 584
Bilingualism and Multilingualism: The Media, Education, Literacy, and the Law......Page 589
23: Bilingualism and Multilingualism in the Global Media and Advertising......Page 591
Globalization and International Advertising: Key Issues......Page 592
A plurilingual view: conceptual framework......Page 594
Negative view......Page 595
Positive view......Page 596
Typology of the Global Spread of English and Language-mixing......Page 597
Bilingualism through non-Roman scripts......Page 599
Multilingualism and Structural Domains......Page 603
English and structural domain dependency......Page 605
Globalization and the Marketization of English......Page 608
Quantitative aspects of English......Page 610
Globalization from the bottom up......Page 612
English and the Mystique Factor......Page 614
Adaptation......Page 617
Double marking and reduplication......Page 618
Linguistic Accommodation and Advertiser’s Perception......Page 619
Conclusion......Page 621
References......Page 622
24: Bilingual Education......Page 624
Brief History of Bilingual Education......Page 625
Research on the effectiveness of bilingual education......Page 628
Methodological and Theoretical Issues......Page 631
Transitional bilingual education programs......Page 632
Developmental bilingual education programs......Page 634
Dual language programs......Page 635
Bilingual immersion programs......Page 637
Bilingual teacher training and availability......Page 638
Emphasis on weak forms of bilingual education......Page 639
Anti-bilingual education state voter initiatives in the United States......Page 641
Assessment and accountability policies discourage bilingual education......Page 642
Directions for Future Work......Page 643
References......Page 645
25: The Impact of Bilingualism on Language and Literacy Development......Page 650
Word awareness......Page 653
Syntactic awareness......Page 656
Phonological awareness......Page 659
Literacy......Page 662
Learning about stories......Page 663
Learning about print......Page 664
Reading......Page 665
The Bilingual Connection......Page 668
References......Page 671
Writing systems......Page 675
Terminology and definitions......Page 677
The acquisition of biliteracy......Page 679
Cross-orthographic influences in biliterates......Page 681
Positive effects on the use of writing systems......Page 682
Creative uses of writing systems......Page 683
The biliterate brain......Page 684
Writing Systems and Metalinguistic Awareness in Bilinguals......Page 685
Phonemic awareness......Page 686
Word awareness and morphological awareness......Page 687
Metalinguistic awareness and second-language pronunciation......Page 688
Nonlinguistic Cognitive Consequences of Biliteracy......Page 689
Conclusions......Page 690
References......Page 692
Introduction......Page 697
Bilingualism/Multilingualism and Forensic Linguistics: Definition and Scope......Page 698
Language Knowledge and Use: Tapping Unconscious and Conscious Dimensions......Page 700
Methodology......Page 704
The Nature of Evidence: DNA and Fingerprints vs. Linguistic Fingerprints......Page 705
Developing linguistic fingerprints: decoding personal or group traits......Page 707
The Bi-/Multilingual Mind and Language Use: Psycholinguistic Perspectives......Page 708
Perceptual assumptions......Page 712
Memory, agentivity, and evidentiality......Page 713
Linguistic variation......Page 714
Forensic phonetics......Page 715
Trademark infringement......Page 716
Product liability/warning labels......Page 717
Plurilingualism in the courts: cross-linguistic translations......Page 718
Conclusion......Page 722
References......Page 723
Part IV: Global Perspectives and Challenges: Case Studies......Page 727
Introduction......Page 729
Terms of reference......Page 733
Plurilingual America......Page 734
Remains of Native America......Page 735
Population mobility......Page 736
Cartographic evidence......Page 737
Bilingual communities......Page 738
Extraterritorial communities......Page 739
Media societies......Page 740
Research on North American Bilingualism......Page 741
References......Page 744
Introduction......Page 751
Sociolinguistic Characteristics......Page 754
Mexico and Central America......Page 755
Caribbean......Page 758
Andean region......Page 759
Southern cone......Page 764
Bilingualism......Page 766
References......Page 768
Introduction......Page 771
The European Union (EU)......Page 772
Europe, a Continent of Sustained Migrations......Page 773
Human migrations in the past......Page 774
Human migration in the present......Page 776
Immigrant languages in France......Page 777
Transitional remarks......Page 780
Regional or minority languages in the EU......Page 781
Three case studies: French, Breton, and Sorb......Page 782
Transitional remarks......Page 787
Foreign languages in education in Europe......Page 788
The generalization of English as a transnational medium......Page 789
General Conclusions and Open Questions......Page 790
Acknowledgments......Page 791
References......Page 792
31: Turkish as an Immigrant Language in Europe......Page 796
History and Current Situation......Page 797
Language Choice, Maintenance and Shift......Page 799
Acquisition......Page 801
Code-Switching......Page 802
Communicative repertoires......Page 803
Linguistic characteristics of code-switching......Page 805
Functions of alternation......Page 807
Loan translations......Page 808
Borrowing of structure......Page 810
Abbreviations Used......Page 812
References......Page 813
Introduction......Page 817
Multilingualism, Language Status, and Language Use......Page 818
Multilingualism and Language Policy......Page 820
Multilingualism and Language Practice in Post-Apartheid South Africa......Page 824
Multilingualism and language practice in South Africa’s media......Page 826
Multilingualism and language practice in South Africa’s educational system......Page 827
Multilingualism and escape clauses in South Africa’s new language policy......Page 829
Multilingualism, language policy failure, and literacy decline......Page 831
Multilingualism, Language Policy Failure, and Language Shift......Page 833
Conclusion......Page 835
References......Page 836
China......Page 839
Minority nationalities and their languages......Page 840
Bilingual education......Page 841
Hong Kong......Page 842
Bilingual education......Page 843
Macao......Page 844
Triglossia with multilingualism......Page 846
Language shift and language death......Page 847
Language revitalization and bilingual education......Page 848
Demography, history, and linguistic origins......Page 849
Macro-sociolinguistic profiles of the current Chinese language diaspora......Page 852
Chinese heritage language maintenance......Page 855
Chinese language media......Page 858
Conclusion......Page 861
References......Page 862
Introduction......Page 869
South Asia......Page 870
India......Page 871
The historical roles of Sanskrit, Persian, and English......Page 876
Present-day India/SA......Page 881
Salient Features of SA Multilingualism......Page 883
Stable multilingualism and multiple identities......Page 884
Verbal repertoire......Page 885
Diglossic/high–low pattern......Page 888
Freedom of choice and language planning......Page 889
Language minorities: language maintenance and shift......Page 890
Conclusion......Page 892
References......Page 893
Introduction......Page 897
Territory, Ethnos, and the Sociolinguistic Setting......Page 898
Ethnic populations and varying types of language communities......Page 899
Demographic changes......Page 901
Languages and Language Status......Page 903
Titular languages......Page 904
State languages......Page 906
Official and nonofficial minority languages......Page 907
Language Promotion in the Wake of the 1989–1990 Language Laws......Page 908
Laws and regulations......Page 909
Alphabets......Page 912
Vocabulary......Page 913
New Patterns of Language Behavior......Page 914
Language proficiency, resources, and coordination......Page 915
Concluding Remarks: A New Linguistic Era......Page 918
References......Page 920
Bilingualism and multilingualism, the Middle East and North Africa......Page 925
Historical and cultural background......Page 926
The MENA language array......Page 927
The formal state of the MENA languages......Page 928
Sociolinguistic aspects in MENA......Page 929
Loanwords in Arabic at present......Page 930
Diglossia, Arabic, and other languages......Page 931
Code-switching and diglossia......Page 932
Multilingualism and Arabic......Page 933
Psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic bilingual/multilingual research on MENA languages......Page 934
Summary and Conclusion......Page 936
Acknowledgments......Page 937
References......Page 938
Index......Page 946