Motor Vehicle

Contents......Page 3
Units and abbreviations......Page 7
Part 1 The Engine......Page 9
1.1 Heat and work......Page 11
1.5 Calorific value......Page 12
1.7 General method of conversion of heat to work......Page 13
1.9 Rotary and reciprocating engines......Page 14
1.10 Cylinder, piston, connecting rod and crankshaft......Page 15
1.12 The four-stroke cycle......Page 16
1.13 Heat balance......Page 18
1.14 Factors governing the mean effective pressure......Page 20
1.15 Work per minute, power and horsepower......Page 21
1.17 Indicated and brake power......Page 22
1.19 Limiting factors......Page 23
1.20 Characteristic speed power curves......Page 24
1.21 Torque curve......Page 26
1.22 Effect of supercharging on bmep and power......Page 27
1.23 Brake specific fuel consumption......Page 29
1.26 Power per litre......Page 31
1.27 Considerations of balance and uniformity of torque......Page 32
2 Engine balance......Page 33
2.1 Practical balancing......Page 34
2.2 Balance of reciprocating parts......Page 35
2.5 Side-by-side twin with cranks at 180......Page 37
2.7 General method of balancing......Page 38
2.11 Secondary forces and couples......Page 39
2.12 Effect of short connecting rod......Page 40
2.15 Harmonic balancer......Page 42
2.16 Torsional disturbances......Page 43
2.17 In-line engines with three cylinders......Page 44
2.19 Flexible mountings......Page 45
2.20 Modes of vibration, natural frequency, forcing frequency and resonance......Page 46
2.22 Importance in the design of engine mountings......Page 47
2.23 Hydraulically damped engine mountings......Page 50
2.24 The Avon Hydramount......Page 53
3.2 The piston......Page 55
3.4 Design details......Page 56
3.6 AEconoglide piston......Page 60
3.7 Combustion chamber in piston......Page 61
3.9 Ring sections......Page 63
3.10 Oil control rings......Page 64
3.11 Ring belt design......Page 66
3.12 Cylinder bore wear and corrosion......Page 67
3.14 Connecting rods......Page 68
3.15 Typical connecting rods......Page 69
3.18 Thin-wall bearings......Page 71
3.21 Aluminium-tin bearing alloys......Page 73
3.23 The crankshaft......Page 74
3.24 Crankshaft materials......Page 75
3.25 Built-up crankshafts......Page 78
3.26 Surface-hardening of shafts......Page 79
3.28 High-frequency induction hardening: flame hardening......Page 80
3.29 The poppet valve......Page 81
3.30 The valve in practice......Page 82
3.32 Corrosion and wear......Page 83
3.34 Seat inserts in cylinder heads......Page 84
3.35 Layout of valves and form of combustion chamber......Page 85
3.36 Variable valve timing (VVT)......Page 88
3.38 Early inlet valve closure (EIVC)......Page 89
3.40 Late inlet valve closure (LIVC)......Page 90
3.43 VPC, VLTC, VPLC and VET systems......Page 91
3.44 The MechadyneÒMitchell system......Page 94
3.45 Control of the Mechadyne–Mitchell system......Page 97
3.46 Multi-valve heads......Page 98
3.47 Cylinder head Ò some overall design considerations......Page 100
3.48 An interesting cylinder head design......Page 102
3.49 Cylinder block and crankcase arrangement......Page 105
3.50 The aluminium crankcase......Page 106
3.51 Camshaft drive......Page 109
4.1 Six cylinders......Page 113
4.4 Eight cylinders......Page 114
4.5 Firing order......Page 115
4.6 Balanced webs and torsional oscillation......Page 116
4.8 Humber Super Snipe engine......Page 117
4.9 Jaguar AJ6 engine......Page 121
4.10 Rover 2.3/2.6-litre E series engines......Page 125
4.11 Ford V-six range......Page 128
4.12 Mercedes M112 V6 engines......Page 129
4.13 The main castings of the Mercedes engine......Page 132
4.14 Valves and combustion system......Page 134
4.15 Meeting future emissions regulations......Page 135
4.16 Dual ignition and low fuel consumption......Page 138
4.17 Inlet and exhaust manifolds......Page 140
4.19 The V-eight......Page 141
4.20 Balance and firing intervals of V-eight......Page 142
4.22 Construction of V-eight......Page 143
4.23 A British V-eight engine......Page 144
4.24 Jaguar 5.3-litre V-twelve......Page 147
4.25 Jaguar with May Fireball combustion chamber......Page 150
5.1 Burt single-sleeve valve......Page 153
5.2 Arrangement of ports......Page 154
5.4 Rotary valve......Page 155
5.5 Cross rotary-valve engine......Page 156
5.7 NSU Wankel rotary engine......Page 157
6.1 Ignition by the temperature of compression......Page 162
6.2 Air blast injection......Page 163
6.3 Mechanical injection......Page 164
6.6 Three phases of combustion......Page 165
6.8 Second phase......Page 166
6.11 Direct injection......Page 167
6.12 Pre-combustion chamber......Page 168
6.15 Suarer dual-turbulence system......Page 169
6.17 The Phaser combustion chamber......Page 170
6.18 Injection equipment......Page 174
6.19 Pintle type nozzle......Page 176
6.21 Hole type nozzles......Page 177
6.23 Injectors for small diesel engines and two-stage injection......Page 179
6.24 Stanadyne Pencil injector......Page 181
6.25 Injection control......Page 183
6.27 Types of injection pump......Page 184
6.29 Details of the Minimec pump......Page 185
6.30 Minimec pumping elements......Page 188
6.31 Starting from cold......Page 189
6.32 Governors......Page 191
6.34 General principles of engine speed control......Page 193
6.36 Types of governor mechanism......Page 194
6.37 Torque control......Page 195
6.38 The mechanical governor fitted to the Minimec pump......Page 196
6.39 Bosch mechanically governed in-line pump......Page 200
6.40 Bosch electronic controls for injection pumps......Page 201
6.41 Unit injection......Page 203
6.42 Lucas electronic unit injection (EUI) system......Page 205
6.43 Penske/Detroit Diesel electronic unit injection......Page 208
6.44 The Cummins PT system......Page 209
6.45 The GM unit injection system......Page 215
6.46 Common rail injection systems......Page 217
6.47 The Bosch system......Page 218
6.48 Components of the Bosch system......Page 219
6.49 Injectors......Page 220
6.50 Diesel fuel filtration in general......Page 224
6.51 Filtration and system layouts......Page 225
7.2 Lucas DPA type pump......Page 228
7.3 DPA pump governor......Page 232
7.4 Lucas DPS pump......Page 233
7.5 DPS fuel supply and distribution system......Page 235
7.6 Engine starting......Page 237
7.7 Control of maximum fuel delivery......Page 238
7.8 The two speed governor......Page 240
7.9 Scroll plates......Page 241
7.11 Automatic advance and retard unit......Page 242
7.12 Lucas DPC pump......Page 244
7.14 Injection timing advance and retard......Page 247
7.15 Low load advance, external control......Page 251
7.16 DPC boost controller......Page 254
7.17 Electronic control of distributor pumps......Page 256
7.18 The Lucas EPIC electronically controlled pump......Page 257
7.19 The electronic control system......Page 258
7.20 The Bosch systems......Page 260
7.21 Governing the VE pump......Page 264
7.22 Torque control for the VE type pump......Page 266
7.23 Boost pressure and altitude compensation modules......Page 268
7.24 Load dependent injection timing......Page 269
7.25 Cold start advance and stopping the engine......Page 270
7.26 Bosch VP44 radial plunger type pump......Page 272
7.27 The incremental pressure stages......Page 274
7.28 Control over injection quantity per shot......Page 275
7.29 Fuel delivery and distribution......Page 276
7.30 Control over injection quantity and timing......Page 277
7.31 The angular encoder......Page 278
7.32 Stanadyne rotary distributor pumps......Page 280
7.33 Stanadyne DS electronically controlled pump......Page 284
8.1 Perkins P3 diesel engine......Page 287
8.2 Perkins Prima DI engine......Page 289
8.3 Gardner LW......Page 292
8.4 Cummins 10-litre diesel......Page 295
8.5 Relative merits of spark ignition and ci engines......Page 299
9 The two- stroke engine......Page 302
9.1 Three-port two-stroke engine......Page 303
9.2 Reverse-flow scavenge DKW engine......Page 305
9.4 Separate phased pump......Page 306
9.5 Trojan engine......Page 307
9.6 Kadenacy system......Page 309
9.10 Compression-ignition two-stroke engine......Page 311
9.12 Foden six-cylinder two-stroke ci engine......Page 312
9.14 Crankshaft balance and firing order......Page 316
9.15 GM two-stroke diesel......Page 317
9.16 Opposed-piston engine......Page 319
9.17 Comparison of advantages......Page 322
10 Fundamentals of carburation......Page 325
10.2 Requirements for metering and mixing......Page 326
10.3 Mixture quality......Page 327
10.4 Induction of the mixture......Page 328
10.5 Volumetric efficiency......Page 329
10.6 Throttling......Page 330
10.7 Fuel and air metering......Page 332
10.8 Volume and mass flow......Page 333
10.10 The fixed-choke type......Page 334
10.11 Fuel : air ratio compensation for fixed-choke carburettors......Page 336
10.12 Compensation by compound and submerged jets......Page 337
10.13 Air bleed compensation......Page 339
10.14 Multiple venturis intensify air bleed compensation......Page 341
10.17 Mixture requirements in more detail......Page 342
10.18 Principle of the intermediate chamber......Page 344
10.19 Starting and idling enrichment devices......Page 345
10.20 Separate starting and warm-up enrichment devices......Page 346
10.21 Zenith VE starter carburettor......Page 347
10.22 Thermostatic control for starting and warm-up......Page 348
10.23 Solex progressive starter......Page 349
10.24 Idling systems and progression jets......Page 351
10.26 Provision for acceleration......Page 352
10.27 Mechanically actuated acceleration pumps......Page 353
10.28 Depression actuated acceleration pumps......Page 354
10.29 Enrichment for maximum power......Page 355
10.30 Static power enrichment......Page 356
10.31 Economiser devices......Page 360
11.1 Venturi diameter......Page 361
11.2 Zenith W type carburettors......Page 362
11.3 Zenith IZ Carburettors......Page 364
11.4 Zenith IV carburettors......Page 366
11.5 Adaptation for emission control......Page 367
11.6 Multi-barrel carburettors......Page 369
11.7 A three-stage throttle mechanism......Page 371
11.8 Solex MIMAT carburettor......Page 372
11.9 An electronically controlled four-barrel carburettor......Page 379
11.10 Constant-depression carburettors......Page 388
11.11 SU constant-depression carburettor......Page 390
11.12 SU carburettor type HIF......Page 391
11.13 Zenith-Stromberg CD and CDS carburettors......Page 393
11.14 Zenith-Stromberg CDSE emission carburettor......Page 394
11.15 Zenith-Stromberg CD4 and CD5 carburettors......Page 395
11.16 Mixture ratio curves......Page 397
11.17 Automatic governor......Page 398
12 Petrol injection systems......Page 400
12.1 Basic considerations......Page 401
12.2 Injection system types and layouts......Page 402
12.3 Injection strategies......Page 403
12.4 Injector design......Page 404
12.5 Some other injectors......Page 407
12.7 Air-flow metering......Page 409
12.8 Suspended-plate-type flow sensor......Page 410
12.9 Swinging-gate-type air flow sensor......Page 412
12.10 Mass-flow sensors......Page 413
12.11 Lambda sensor......Page 414
12.12 Bosch K-Jetronic system......Page 417
12.13 The fuel distributor......Page 419
12.14 Bosch KE-Jetronic system......Page 420
12.15 Bosch L-Jetronic system......Page 422
12.16 Bosch LH-Jetronic system......Page 425
12.18 The electronic ignition control......Page 426
12.19 Fuel supply......Page 428
12.20 Overall principle of operation......Page 429
12.21 Other variables......Page 430
12.23 Bosch Mono-Jetronic system......Page 434
12.24 The GM Multec single-point system......Page 436
12.25 The Multec multi-point system......Page 438
12.26 Rover throttle body injection and ignition control......Page 439
12.27 Ignition control......Page 442
12.28 The air-intake system......Page 443
12.30 Stepper motor operation......Page 445
12.31 Fuel metering......Page 446
12.32 The Mechadyne Pijet 90 system......Page 447
12.33 Principle of operation......Page 448
12.34 Idling and the electronic control unit......Page 451
12.35 Comment......Page 452
13 Induction manifold design......Page 455
13.1 Mixture distribution and manifold pressure......Page 456
13.2 Mixture transport problems......Page 458
13.3 Manifold heating......Page 459
13.4 Materials......Page 462
13.6 Valve timing and inter-cylinder charge robbery......Page 463
13.7 Crankshaft and cylinder layout in relation to valve timing......Page 464
13.9 Four-cylinder in-line engines......Page 465
13.10 Six and eight cylinders in-line......Page 468
13.11 V-layouts......Page 469
13.12 Pipe tuning - the inertia wave......Page 472
13.13 Tuning the pipe to optimise the inertia wave effect......Page 473
13.14 Resonant, or standing, waves......Page 474
13.16 Frequencies, wavelengths and lengths of pipes......Page 477
13.18 Harmonics of standing waves......Page 480
13.19 Some practical applications of pipe tuning......Page 481
13.20 The Helmholtz resonator......Page 484
13.21 Helmholtz resonators in automotive practice......Page 487
13.23 Examples of the application of the Helmholtz principle......Page 488
13.24 Application to Vengines......Page 489
13.25 The Helmholtz resonator in combination with tuned pipes......Page 491
14 Emission control......Page 492
14.1 Early measures for controlling emissions......Page 493
14.2 Evolution of the US Federal test procedures......Page 494
14.4 Two-way catalytic conversion......Page 496
14.6 Catalyst support......Page 497
14.7 Metallic monoliths for catalytic converters......Page 498
14.8 Ford EGI system for preheating catalysts......Page 500
14.9 Three-way conversion......Page 501
14.11 Warm-air intake systems......Page 502
14.12 Evaporative emissions......Page 503
14.13 Crankcase emission control......Page 504
14.14 Air injection and gulp valve......Page 505
14.15 Air management valves......Page 506
14.16 Some more complex valve arrangements......Page 507
14.17 Vapour collection and canister purge systems......Page 509
14.19 Reduction of emissions: conflicting requirements......Page 514
14.20 Oxides of nitrogen, NOx......Page 515
14.21 Unburnt hydrocarbons......Page 518
14.23 Particulates......Page 519
14.24 Particle traps......Page 521
14.26 Black smoke......Page 523
14.27 White smoke......Page 524
15.1 Roller-cell positive displacement type pump......Page 525
15.2 Mechanical diaphragm type pump......Page 526
15.3 SU pump......Page 528
15.4 Rotary electric fuel pumps......Page 529
15.5 Air filters and silencers......Page 530
16.1 Pressure charging the spark ignition engine......Page 532
16.2 Carburetted engines......Page 533
16.4 The two-stroke engine......Page 534
16.6 Automotive turbocharger construction......Page 535
16.7 Operating range and characteristics......Page 536
16.8 Compressor surge and stall......Page 539
16.11 Constant-pressure turbocharging......Page 540
16.13 Exhaust manifold layouts for turbocharging......Page 541
16.14 Pulse converters......Page 544
16.15 Matching the turbocharger to the engine......Page 545
16.16 Extending turbocharger speed range......Page 547
16.17 Variable geometry......Page 548
16.18 By-passing the gas flow......Page 551
16.19 Cooling the charge......Page 552
16.20 The heat exchanger......Page 553
16.21 Supercharging......Page 554
16.22 Two main categories of supercharger......Page 557
16.24 Advantages of blowing......Page 559
16.25 Screw-type compressors......Page 560
16.26 Other methods of supercharging......Page 562
16.27 The pressure-wave supercharger......Page 564
17 Fuels and their combustion......Page 566
17.1 Distillation and blending......Page 568
17.2 The principal refining processes......Page 570
17.3 Properties required for petrol......Page 571
17.4 Fuel-performance requirements......Page 572
17.6 Boiling point, vapour lock and ice formation in induction systems......Page 573
17.7 Composition of fuel for spark ignition engines......Page 574
17.8 Additives......Page 575
17.10 Lead-free fuels......Page 576
17.12 Corrosion inhibitors......Page 577
17.14 Diesel fuels......Page 578
17.15 Properties required for diesel fuel......Page 579
17.16 Cetane number, cetane index and diesel index......Page 580
17.18 Density......Page 582
17.21 Smoke......Page 583
17.23 Additives......Page 585
17.24 The effects of additives on combustion and performance......Page 586
17.25 Cetane number and cetane improvers......Page 587
17.27 Cold weather additives......Page 588
17.29 Detergents and anti-corrosion additives......Page 589
17.30 Anti-foamants and re-odorants......Page 591
17.32 Ignition delay......Page 592
18.2 Boundary friction......Page 595
18.3 Viscous friction......Page 596
18.5 Change of viscosity with temperature - viscosity index......Page 597
18.7 Synthetic lubricants......Page 599
18.9 The wear process and lubrication......Page 601
18.10 Corrosive wear......Page 602
18.12 Oil additives......Page 603
18.13 Lubrication systems......Page 607
18.14 Pressure lubrication......Page 608
18.17 Hydrodynamic lubrication......Page 610
18.18 Gear-type oil pump......Page 611
18.19 Eccentric-rotor pump......Page 612
18.20 Oil filters......Page 613
18.21 Oil circulation and pressure indicators......Page 614
18.22 Oil level indication......Page 616
19 Engine cooling......Page 617
19.1 Temperature control......Page 620
19.2 Wax-element thermostats......Page 621
19.3 Pressurised cooling system......Page 622
19.4 Twin thermostats......Page 623
19.6 Directed cooling......Page 624
19.7 Radiator construction......Page 625
19.9 Fan drives......Page 628
20.1 Batteries......Page 631
20.2 The battery electric vehicles......Page 632
20.3 Fuel cells......Page 633
20.4 The fuel cell: basic principles......Page 634
20.5 Low pressure hydrogen storage on the vehicle......Page 635
20.6 Fuel cells in buses, US and Canada......Page 636
20.7 Zevco fuel cell for cars, Europe......Page 638
20.9 Hydrogen from methanol or DME......Page 639
20.10 Hybrid power......Page 641
20.11 Toyota Prius hybrid car......Page 643
21.1 The gas turbine......Page 645
21.3 Essential components in turbine unit......Page 647
21.5 Essential characteristics of turbine prime movers......Page 648
21.6 Automotive power unit......Page 649
21.8 Heat exchangers......Page 650
21.9 Turbine developments......Page 651
21.10 Ford power unit......Page 652
21.11 Chrysler turbine car......Page 653
21.12 Leyland gas turbine......Page 655
21.14 Stratified-charge engines......Page 656
21.15 Single-chamber versions......Page 657
21.16 Dual-chamber versions......Page 659
21.18 How NOx emission is avoided......Page 662
21.19 Results obtained on the test bed......Page 664
21.20 The fully developed ignition system......Page 665
21.21 The outlook......Page 666
21.22 Stirling engine......Page 667
22 Bearings, gearing, chain and belt drives......Page 674
22.1 Types of toothed gearing......Page 676
22.3 Chain drive......Page 680
22.4 Belt drives......Page 681
Part 2 Transmission......Page 683
23 Transmission requirements......Page 684
23.1 Clutch, gearbox and live axle transmission - general arrangement......Page 686
23.2 Layout of rear-engine vehicles with live axles......Page 688
23.3 Dead-axle and axleless transmission arrangements......Page 689
23.4 Four-wheel-drive transmission......Page 693
24.1 Basic principle of the friction-type clutch......Page 695
24.2 Torque transmitted......Page 696
24.3 Cone clutch......Page 697
24.4 Torque capacity of a cone clutch......Page 698
24.6 Friction materials......Page 699
24.7 Bonding agents for fibres......Page 700
24.8 Single-plate clutch......Page 701
24.9 Torque transmitted......Page 702
24.10 Multi-spring single-plate clutch......Page 703
24.11 The diaphragm-spring clutch......Page 705
24.13 Belleville direct-release clutch......Page 709
24.14 Driven plate......Page 711
24.15 Multiple-plate clutch......Page 712
24.17 Clutch release gear......Page 713
24.20 Centrifugal clutches......Page 714
24.21 Eddy current couplings......Page 716
24.22 The Ferlec electro-magnetic clutch......Page 717
24.23 Fluid flywheel......Page 718
24.25 Characteristic of the fluid flywheel......Page 720
24.26 ÎOpen circuitÌ fluid coupling......Page 721
24.27 Fluid-friction clutch......Page 722
24.28 Connection between the clutch and gearbox......Page 723
25.1 Aerodynamic forces......Page 725
25.3 Rolling resistance......Page 726
25.5 Tractive effort......Page 727
25.6 Variation of the tractive effort with speed......Page 729
25.7 Performance curves......Page 730
25.8 Clutch action......Page 731
25.10 Performance curves on a horsepower basis......Page 732
26.1 Sliding-mesh gearbox......Page 735
26.2 First or low gear......Page 737
26.6 Reverse gear......Page 738
26.9 Ball-type selector mechanism......Page 740
26.10 Steering column gear shift control......Page 743
26.11 Constant-mesh gearbox......Page 744
26.12 A five-speed gearbox......Page 745
26.13 Another example of a constant-mesh gearbox......Page 747
26.14 BL cars overdrive, five-ratio gearbox......Page 748
26.15 Synchromesh devices......Page 750
26.16 Baulk type of synchromesh......Page 752
26.17 Baulk-ring synchromesh......Page 753
26.18 Multi- and double-cone synchronisers......Page 754
26.19 Porsche synchromesh......Page 755
26.20 Lubrication of the gearbox......Page 756
26.21 Freewheel devices......Page 757
26.22 Auxiliary gearboxes and overdrives......Page 758
26.23 A Leyland ten-ratio gearbox......Page 759
26.24 The Fuller twin-countershaft gearbox......Page 760
26.26 Multi-speed splitter gearbox......Page 762
26.28 Clutchless changes......Page 763
26.29 An upshift brake......Page 765
26.30 Additional features......Page 766
27 Epicyclic and pre- selector gearboxes......Page 767
27.1 A simple epicyclic gear train......Page 768
27.2 An alternative epicyclic gear train......Page 769
27.3 Epicyclic gear ratios......Page 770
27.4 Simple planetary epicyclic gearing......Page 771
27.6 Compound planet epicyclic gearing......Page 772
27.7 Numbers of teeth......Page 773
27.9 Epicyclic gearboxes......Page 774
27.10 Basic principle of the Wilson gearbox......Page 775
27.11 The auxiliary trains in the Wilson gearbox......Page 777
27.12 The clutches and brakes in the Wilson gearbox......Page 778
27.13 Automatic compensation for wear......Page 779
28 Torque converters and automatic gearboxes......Page 781
28.1 Torque converter with direct drive......Page 784
28.2 Turbo-Transmitters converter......Page 785
28.3 Other arrangements of torque converters......Page 786
28.4 Chevrolet Turboglide transmission......Page 788
28.5 Torque converter performance......Page 789
28.6 Automatic transmission in general......Page 791
28.7 Borg-Warner Models 35, 65 and 66 transmissions......Page 792
28.8 Alfa Romeo Q-System......Page 793
28.9 Porsche automatic transmission for sports cars......Page 794
28.10 Porsche Tiptronic electronic control system......Page 795
28.11 Borg-Warner Models 45 and 55 transmissions......Page 798
28.12 Hydramatic transmissions......Page 801
28.13 Hydramatic Strato-flight gearbox controls......Page 805
28.14 Automatic transmissions for commercial vehicles......Page 811
28.15 Voith Diwamatic transmission......Page 812
28.16 ZF HP500 fully automatic transmission......Page 813
29.1 AP semi-automatic gearbox......Page 816
29.2 AP hot-shift automatic gearbox......Page 819
29.3 Ricardo ALT automatic transmission......Page 821
29.4 Alfa Romeo Selespeed transmission......Page 823
29.5 Van Doorne Variomatic and Transmatic transmissions......Page 826
29.6 Van Doorne Transmissive BV steel CVT......Page 830
29.7 The Maxwell automatic transmission......Page 831
29.8 Leyland continuously variable transmission......Page 832
30.1 Constructional forms of universal joints......Page 839
30.2 Flexible-ring joints......Page 841
30.3 Rubber-bushed flexible joints......Page 842
30.4 Constant-velocity joints......Page 843
30.5 Driving and braking of steered wheels......Page 846
31 The differential......Page 851
31.2 Spur, or planetary type, differential......Page 853
31.3 Traction control differentials......Page 854
31.4 Vehicle design implications of traction control......Page 856
31.5 Multi-plate clutch-type traction control device......Page 857
31.6 Some other clutch types......Page 858
31.7 Gear type traction control devices......Page 859
31.8 ZF limited slip differential......Page 861
31.9 Multi-plate clutch type......Page 862
31.10 The traction control by viscous coupling......Page 864
32.2 The final drive......Page 867
32.3 Single-reduction live axles......Page 868
32.6 Torque and thrust member arrangements......Page 869
32.7 Springs serving also as torque and thrust members......Page 870
32.8 Hotchkiss drive with torque reaction member......Page 871
springs taking only vertical and lateral loads......Page 872
32.11 Three radius rods......Page 873
33 Axle constructions......Page 875
33.1 Effects of wheel-bearing layout on axle loading......Page 877
33.2 Some actual bearing arrangements......Page 878
33.3 Axle casing constructions......Page 880
34.1 Both steps at the centre of the axle......Page 882
34.2 Kirkstall double-reduction axle......Page 884
34.3 One step at centre of axle, the other at road wheels......Page 886
34.4 A bevel-gear hub reduction......Page 887
Part 3 The Carriage Unit......Page 888
35.1 The frame......Page 889
35.2 Sub-frames......Page 894
35.3 Integral and chassisless construction......Page 896
36 Vehicle safety......Page 898
36.1 Crash testing......Page 899
36.2 Protection of occupants......Page 905
36.3 Testing for occupant safety......Page 906
36.4 Protection of pedestrians from serious injury......Page 908
36.5 Active safety......Page 909
36.6 Structural safety and air bags......Page 911
36.7 Passenger compartment integrity......Page 913
36.8 The problem of the small car......Page 915
36.10 Smart air bags......Page 917
36.11 Seat belts......Page 918
36.12 Improvement of active safety......Page 920
36.13 Tyres, suspension and steering......Page 921
36.15 Electric power assisted steering......Page 922
36.17 Automatic braking and traction control......Page 923
36.19 Suspension control......Page 924
36.20 Ergonomic considerations and safety......Page 925
36.21 Seating......Page 926
36.22 The pedal controls......Page 928
37 Brakes......Page 930
37.2 Braking systems......Page 932
37.4 Types of brake......Page 933
37.5 Elementary theory of the shoe brake......Page 936
37.6 Brake shoe adjustments......Page 938
37.7 A modern rear-wheel brake......Page 939
37.8 Disc brakes......Page 943
37.9 Self-energising disc brakes......Page 947
37.10 Brake linkages......Page 948
37.11 Leverage and adjustment of the brake linkage......Page 950
37.12 Hydraulic systems......Page 951
37.13 Operating cylinders......Page 952
37.14 Divided and dual brake systems......Page 953
38 Servo- and power- operated, and regenerative braking systems......Page 957
38.2 Clayton Dewandre master servo unit......Page 958
38.3 Reservoirs......Page 960
38.5 Direct-acting vacuum servos......Page 961
38.6 Power-operated brakes......Page 962
38.7 A dual power brake system......Page 964
38.8 Compressed air systems......Page 966
38.10 Spring brake units and locks......Page 969
38.11 Brake limiting device and anti-slide systems......Page 971
38.12 The load-conscious valve......Page 973
38.13 Apportioning valves for front-wheel sensed anti-lock systems......Page 974
38.14 Apportioning valves for heavy commercial vehicles......Page 977
38.15 Mercedes-Benz 4MATIC traction control for 4-wheel drive......Page 979
38.16 Mercedes-Benz Brake Assist (BA)......Page 982
38.17 Stability when steering and braking or accelerating (ESP)......Page 984
38.18 Regenerative braking systems......Page 985
39 Anti- lock brakes and traction control......Page 989
39.1 Dunlop-Maxaret system......Page 990
39.2 Lucas-Girling WSP system......Page 991
39.3 Ford Escort and Orion anti-lock systems......Page 992
39.4 Ford Granada, Sierra and Scorpio anti-lock systems......Page 994
39.5 Traction control......Page 997
39.6 Teves Mk IV ABS and traction control......Page 999
39.7 Advanced anti-lock braking systems......Page 1001
39.8 Braking force coefficient and slip factor......Page 1002
39.9 Bosch anti-lock (ABS) systems......Page 1003
39.10 How the system functions......Page 1005
39.11 The reference speeds......Page 1006
39.12 Wheels on one side on ice and on the other on tarmac......Page 1008
39.13 ABS for cars with 4-wheel drive......Page 1009
39.14 Traction control in general......Page 1010
39.15 Bosch ASR2-DKB traction control system......Page 1011
39.16 Bosch ASR2-DKZ/MSR system......Page 1012
39.17 Lucas-Girling Skidchek GX......Page 1013
40 Front axle and steering mechanism......Page 1017
40.1 Ackerman linkage......Page 1018
40.2 Multi-wheel vehicles......Page 1019
40.3 Steering linkages for independent suspension......Page 1020
40.4 Centre-point steering......Page 1021
40.5 Castoring or trailing action......Page 1023
40.7 Limiting grip on road while braking and steering......Page 1024
40.9 Steering characteristics - oversteer and understeer......Page 1025
40.10 Rear wheel steering......Page 1026
40.11 The underlying principles......Page 1027
40.12 The Nissan Super HICAS system......Page 1029
40.13 Components of the HICAS system......Page 1032
40.14 Axle beam......Page 1034
40.15 Stub-axle construction......Page 1035
40.16 Wheel bearings......Page 1036
40.18 Reversible and irreversible steering......Page 1039
40.20 Screw-and-nut mechanism......Page 1040
40.22 Screw-and-lever mechanism......Page 1042
40.23 Steering connections......Page 1043
40.25 Effect of toe-in on steering......Page 1044
40.26 Power assisted steering, basic principles......Page 1045
40.27 Vickers system......Page 1046
40.28 Ross system......Page 1047
40.29 Marles-Bendix Varamatic system......Page 1049
40.31 TRW systems......Page 1051
40.32 TRW rack drive system......Page 1052
40.33 The column and pinion drive variants......Page 1053
40.34 ZF Servolectric system......Page 1055
40.35 Honda EPS and VGR systems......Page 1057
41 Wheels and tyres......Page 1059
41.2 Wheels......Page 1062
41.3 Rims......Page 1064
41.4 Wheel fixing......Page 1069
41.6 Tyres......Page 1070
41.7 Tyre construction......Page 1072
41.8 Tread design......Page 1074
41.11 Aspect ratio and tyre markings......Page 1075
41.12 Tyre design considerations......Page 1077
41.13 Run-flat tyres......Page 1078
41.14 Materials......Page 1079
41.15 Manufacture......Page 1080
41.16 Retreading worn tyres......Page 1081
42.1 Road irregularities and human susceptibility......Page 1083
42.2 Suspension system......Page 1084
42.3 Damping......Page 1086
42.4 Dampers in practice......Page 1087
42.5 Double-tube damper......Page 1088
42.6 Single-tube damper......Page 1089
42.8 Springs......Page 1090
42.9 Types of leaf spring......Page 1091
42.10 Laminated spring details......Page 1092
42.11 Taper-leaf springs......Page 1095
42.12 Steering effects of leaf springs......Page 1097
42.14 Variable-rate springs......Page 1099
42.15 Composite leaf springs......Page 1100
42.16 Rubber springs......Page 1101
42.17 Air springs......Page 1105
42.18 Adjustable and self-adjusting suspensions......Page 1106
42.19 Interconnected suspension systems......Page 1109
42.20 Interconnected air and liquid suspensions......Page 1110
42.21 BL Hydrolastic suspenion systems......Page 1111
42.22 Moulton Hydragas suspension......Page 1112
42.23 Austin Mini Metro Suspension......Page 1114
42.24 Chassis lubrication......Page 1115
42.25 Some autolubrication systems......Page 1116
43 Suspension systems......Page 1118
43.2 Roll centre......Page 1119
43.3 Double transverse-link suspension......Page 1122
43.4 MacPherson strut type......Page 1126
43.5 Single transverse link......Page 1127
43.6 Single leading or trailing link......Page 1128
43.7 Double leading or trailing link......Page 1129
43.9 Girling suspension......Page 1130
43.10 Dubonnet suspension......Page 1131
43.11 Slider, or pillar, type......Page 1132
43.12 Rover 2000 front suspension......Page 1133
43.14 Rear suspension - live axle......Page 1134
43.15 Torque reaction and axle guidance......Page 1135
43.17 Rear suspension - dead axles......Page 1136
43.18 Rear suspension - independent......Page 1138
43.19 Single link with angled pivot axis......Page 1139
43.21 Vehicle handling considerations......Page 1142
43.22 MacPherson strut rear suspension......Page 1143
43.23 Active suspension......Page 1144
43.24 Suspension control systems......Page 1146
44 Six- wheel vehicles......Page 1151
44.2 Suspensions for rigid six-wheelers......Page 1152
44.3 Transmissions of six-wheelers......Page 1154
44.4 A Scammell design......Page 1156
44.5 Torque reaction in rigid six-wheelers......Page 1157
44.6 Spring stresses in rigid six-wheelers......Page 1160
44.7 Scammell articulated trailer......Page 1161
44.8 Scammell Routeman......Page 1162
Index......Page 1164