Encyclopedia of condensed matter physics

INTRODUCTION\r......Page 4
Permission Acknowledgments......Page 6
Acoustics: Physical Principles and \rApplications to CondensedMatter Physics......Page 7
Allotropy and \rPolymorphism......Page 14
Alloys: Aluminum......Page 24
Alloys: Copper......Page 30
Alloys: Iron......Page 52
Alloys: Magnesium......Page 60
Alloys: Overview......Page 63
Alloys: Titanium......Page 71
Ballistic Transport......Page 83
Bioelectronics......Page 91
Biological Structures......Page 105
Biomedical Materials......Page 114
Biomembranes......Page 122
Biomolecules, Scanning Probe Microscopy of......Page 128
Bose–Einstein Condensation......Page 137
Carbon Materials, Electronic States of......Page 148
Catalysts: Combinatorial Catalysis......Page 156
Catalysts: Materials......Page 163
Ceramics, History of......Page 178
Composites: Carbon Matrix......Page 183
Composites: Overview......Page 197
Composites: Polymer–Polymer......Page 213
Computer Simulation Techniques in Condensed Matter Physics......Page 216
Conductivity, Electrical......Page 224
Conductivity, Thermal......Page 230
Confocal Optical Microscopy......Page 234
Copolymers......Page 240
Core Photoemission......Page 245
Crystal Field Splitting......Page 257
Crystal Growth, Bulk: Methods......Page 267
Crystal Growth, Bulk: Theory and Models......Page 279
Crystal Optics......Page 288
Crystal Structure......Page 294
Crystal Structure Determination......Page 299
Crystal Structure Determination, History of......Page 309
Crystal Symmetry......Page 317
Crystal Tensors: Applications......Page 328
Crystal Tensors: Introduction......Page 334
Crystalline Organic Metals......Page 341
Cyclotron Resonance: Metals......Page 348
Cyclotron Resonance: Semiconductors......Page 361
Deep-Level Spectroscopy and Auger Spectra......Page 373
Defect Centers in Insulating Solids, Optical Properties of......Page 383
Deformation Processing......Page 391
Density-Functional Theory......Page 399
Deterministic Aperiodic Solids, Electronic Properties of......Page 406
Devices for Telecommunications......Page 413
Diamagnetism......Page 418
Diamond Anvil Cells......Page 422
Dielectric Function......Page 430
Diffusionless Transformations......Page 433
Dislocations......Page 441
Disorder and Localization Theory......Page 448
Disordered Magnetic Systems......Page 456
Disordered Solids and Glasses, Electronic Structure of......Page 461
DNA and RNA, Biophysical Aspects......Page 467
Effective Masses......Page 477
Electric and Magnetic Fields in Cells and Tissues......Page 482
Electrodynamics: Continuous Media......Page 490
Electrodynamics: Quantum Electrodynamics......Page 501
Electromagnetic Biological Effects......Page 506
Electromagnetically Induced Transparency......Page 512
Electron and Positron Sources......Page 518
Electron Gas (Theory)......Page 528
Electron Spin Resonance......Page 534
Electronic Structure (Theory): Atoms......Page 543
Electronic Structure (Theory): Molecules......Page 551
Electronic Structure Calculations: Plane-Wave Methods......Page 561
Electronic Structure Calculations: Scattering Methods......Page 569
Electron–Phonon Interactions and the Response of Polarons......Page 575
Electrons and Holes......Page 586
Electrons in Periodic Potentials with Magnetic Fields......Page 593
Electrophysiology......Page 602
Elemental Semiconductors, Electronic States of......Page 609
Elementary Excitations in Biological Systems......Page 617
Environmental Science, Physical Principles and Applications......Page 622
Epitaxy......Page 633
Exciton Complexes......Page 642
Excitons in Crystals......Page 647
Excitons: Theory......Page 655
Fermi Surface Measurements......Page 661
Ferroelectricity......Page 668
Ferromagnetism......Page 677
Film Growth and Epitaxy: Methods......Page 686
Fluorescent Biomolecules......Page 698
Fluorescent Proteins......Page 711
Folding and Sequence Analysis......Page 720
Genetic Algorithms for Biological Systems......Page 727
Geometrical Optics......Page 733
Geometrical Phase and Polarization in Solids......Page 743
Glasses......Page 749
Group Theory......Page 757
Group Theory in Materials Science, Applications......Page 766
Harmonic Generation Frequency Conversion......Page 779
Hartree and Hartree–Fock Methods in Electronic Structure......Page 787
Highly Porous Metals and Ceramics......Page 794
Holography......Page 808
Imaging and Optical Processing......Page 818
Impedance Spectroscopy and Mobility Spectra......Page 825
Incommensurate Phases......Page 839
Insulators, Electronic States of......Page 849
Insulators, Impurity and Defect States in......Page 855
Insulators, Optical Properties of......Page 863
Integrated Circuits......Page 869
Interaction of Light and Matter......Page 878
Intermetallic Compounds, Electronic States of......Page 884
Ion Beam Analysis......Page 898
Ion Transport in Biological Membranes......Page 910
Ionic and Mixed Conductivity in Condensed Phases......Page 918
Ionic Bonding and Crystals......Page 930
Ionizing Radiation Effects in Biological Materials......Page 937
Irreversible Thermodynamics and Basic Transport Theory in Solids......Page 943
Isotopic Effects in Solids......Page 952
Jahn–Teller Effect......Page 962
Kondo Effect (Theory)......Page 970
Laser Radiation Sources......Page 975
Lattice Dynamics: Anharmonic Effects......Page 985
Lattice Dynamics: Aperiodic Crystals......Page 990
Lattice Dynamics: Structural Instability and Soft Modes......Page 1001
Lattice Dynamics: Vibrational Modes......Page 1006
Light Emitting Diodes......Page 1010
Liquid Crystals......Page 1019
Liquids, Electronic Structure of......Page 1028
Liquids, Theory of: Fermi Liquids......Page 1034
Lithography Masks and Pattern Transfer......Page 1044
Local Field Effects......Page 1053
Localized and Itinerant Magnetism......Page 1060
Low-Energy Electron Microscopy......Page 1069
Low-Temperature Properties of Materials......Page 1080
Luminescence......Page 1086
Magnetic Domains......Page 1098
Magnetic Interactions......Page 1104
Magnetic Materials and Applications......Page 1111
Magnetic Order......Page 1118
Magnetic Point Groups and Space Groups......Page 1126
Magnetism, History of......Page 1134
Magnetocaloric Effect......Page 1143
Magnetoelasticity......Page 1152
Magnetoresistance Techniques Applied to Fermi Surfaces......Page 1160
Manganites......Page 1168
Mass Transport......Page 1172
Mechanical Properties: Anelasticity......Page 1178
Mechanical Properties: Creep......Page 1187
Mechanical Properties: Elastic Behavior......Page 1193
Mechanical Properties: Fatigue......Page 1198
Mechanical Properties: Plastic Behavior......Page 1205
Mechanical Properties: Strengthening Mechanisms in Metals......Page 1213
Mechanical Properties: Tensile Properties......Page 1219
Membrane and Protein Aggregates......Page 1225
Memory Devices, Nonvolatile......Page 1231
Memory Devices, Volatile......Page 1244
Meso- and Nanostructures......Page 1254
Metallic Bonding and Crystals......Page 1260
Metalloproteins, Electron Transfer in......Page 1268
Metalloproteins, Structural Determination of......Page 1276
Metals and Alloys, Electronic States of (Including Fermi SurfaceCalculations)......Page 1286
Metals and Alloys, Impurity and Defect States in......Page 1291
Metals and Metallic Alloys, Optical Properties of......Page 1299
Micro- and Macrostructures......Page 1310
Microelectromechanical Systems......Page 1322
Micromechanical Devices and Systems......Page 1331
Modulators, Optical......Page 1337
Molecular Clusters......Page 1350
Molecular Crystallography......Page 1360
Molecular Dynamics Calculations......Page 1366
Molecular Dynamics, Car–Parrinello......Page 1373
Molecular Monolayers and Thin Films......Page 1379
Meossbauer Spectroscopy\r......Page 1385
Multicircle Diffractometry Methods......Page 1397
Muon Spin Rotation......Page 1406
Nanostructures, Electronic Structure of......Page 1415
Nanostructures, Optical Properties of......Page 1422
Neuroscience......Page 1428
Neutron Sources......Page 1433
Neutrons and Neutron Scattering, History of......Page 1440
NMR Methods for the Determination of Local Structure......Page 1447
Nonlinear Dynamics and Nonlinear Dynamical Systems......Page 1458
Nonlinear Optics......Page 1469
Nuclear Fission and Fusion......Page 1477
Nuclear Models and Methods......Page 1482
Numerical Approximation and Analysis......Page 1496
Onsager Relations......Page 1499
Optical Absorption and Reflectance......Page 1506
Optical Bistability......Page 1511
Optical Fibers......Page 1516
Optical Instruments......Page 1523
Optical Microscopy......Page 1539
Optical Properties of Materials......Page 1547
Optical Properties of Surface Layers Enhanced Raman Scattering......Page 1555
Optical Sum Rules and Kramers–Kronig Relations......Page 1564
Organic Semiconductors......Page 1570
Orientation Texture......Page 1585
Paramagnetism......Page 1598
Periodicity and Lattices......Page 1601
Phase Transformation......Page 1610
Phase Transformations, Mathematical Aspects of......Page 1621
Phases and Phase Equilibrium......Page 1626
Photoelectron Spectromicroscopy......Page 1635
Photon Statistics and Coherence Theory......Page 1643
Photonic Bandgap Materials, Electronic States of......Page 1649
Photosynthesis, Physics of......Page 1658
Piezoelectricity......Page 1663
Plasmons......Page 1673
Point Defects......Page 1681
Point Groups......Page 1686
Polaritons......Page 1697
Polarizabilities......Page 1704
Polarons......Page 1710
Polymer Structures......Page 1718
Polymers and Organic Compounds, Optical Properties of......Page 1725
Polymers and Organic Materials, Electronic States of......Page 1738
Polymers, History of......Page 1749
Porous Silicon......Page 1754
Powder Processing: Models and Simulations......Page 1764
Protein Folding and Aggregation......Page 1777
Protein Folding, Engineering of......Page 1781
Protein Folding, Evolution and......Page 1789
Pseudopotential Method......Page 1794
Pyroelectricity......Page 1804
Quantum Cascade Lasers......Page 1812
Quantum Computation and Chaos......Page 1820
Quantum Devices of Reduced Dimensionality......Page 1828
Quantum Hall Effect......Page 1833
Quantum Mechanics: Atoms......Page 1840
Quantum Mechanics: Critical Phenomena......Page 1850
Quantum Mechanics: Elementary Particles......Page 1855
Quantum Mechanics: Foundations......Page 1862
Quantum Mechanics: Methods......Page 1867
Quantum Mechanics: Molecules......Page 1878
Quantum Mechanics: Nuclei......Page 1887
Quasicrystals......Page 1897
Quasicrystals, Electronic Structure of......Page 1906
Radioactive Tracers......Page 1912
Radioactivity......Page 1917
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth......Page 1927
Recursive Methods for Electronic States......Page 1935
Red Blood Cells, Physical Properties of......Page 1940
Relativity......Page 1945
Rhodopsin and the First Step in Vision......Page 1956
Ruthenates......Page 1961
Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy......Page 1973
Scanning Probe Microscopy......Page 1982
Scattering Techniques, Compton......Page 1992
Scattering, Elastic (General)......Page 2003
Scattering, Inelastic: Brillouin......Page 2009
Scattering, Inelastic: Electron......Page 2015
Scattering, Inelastic: Raman......Page 2022
Scattering, Inelastic: X-Ray (Methods and Applications)......Page 2030
Scattering, Nuclear Resonant......Page 2037
Scattering, Rayleigh......Page 2044
Scattering, Resonant......Page 2052
Semiconductor and Metallic Clusters, Electronic Properties of......Page 2060
Semiconductor Compounds and Alloys, Electronic States of......Page 2066
Semiconductor Devices......Page 2074
Semiconductor Heterojunctions, Electronic Properties of......Page 2083
Semiconductor Lasers......Page 2091
Semiconductor Nanostructures......Page 2100
Semiconductor Optics......Page 2107
Semiconductors, Electronic Transitions in......Page 2113
Semiconductors, General Properties......Page 2121
Semiconductors, History of......Page 2131
Semiconductors, Impurity and Defect States in......Page 2140
Semi-Empirical and Empirical Calculations......Page 2151
Sensors......Page 2162
Shubnikov–de Haas and de Haas–van Alphen Techniques......Page 2170
Silicon, History of......Page 2178
Single-Molecule Methods in Biophysics......Page 2188
Small Particles and Clusters, Optical Properties of......Page 2198
Solid-State NMR Structural Studies of Proteins......Page 2204
Solidification: Models and Simulations......Page 2211
Space Groups......Page 2219
Specific Heat......Page 2226
Spin Density Waves and Magnons......Page 2237
Statistical Mechanics: Classical......Page 2245
Statistical Mechanics: Quantum......Page 2253
Stochastic Processes in Physics and Chemistry......Page 2258
Strongly Correlated Electron Systems......Page 2264
Structure Types and Classifications......Page 2272
Sum Rules and Kramers–Kronig Relations in Nonlinear Optics......Page 2278
Superconductivity: Applications......Page 2284
Superconductivity: BCS Theory......Page 2290
Superconductivity: Critical Currents......Page 2300
Superconductivity: Flux Quantization......Page 2307
Superconductivity: General Aspects......Page 2313
Superconductivity: Ginzburg–Landau Theory and Vortex Lattice......Page 2316
Superconductivity: Tunneling......Page 2323
Superconductors, High Tc......Page 2330
Superconductors, Metallic......Page 2339
Superfluidity......Page 2346
Surfaces and Interfaces, Electronic Structure of......Page 2351
Surfaces, Optical Properties of......Page 2362
Synchrotron Radiation......Page 2368
Thermal Conductivity at Low Temperatures......Page 2376
Thermodynamic Properties, General......Page 2381
Thermoelectric and Energy Conversion Devices......Page 2390
Thermoelectric Effect......Page 2397
Thin Films, Mechanical Behavior of......Page 2404
Tight-Binding Method in Electronic Structure......Page 2411
Time-Resolved Optical Spectroscopies......Page 2423
Transistors......Page 2431
Transition-Metal Compounds, Electronic and MagneticProperties of......Page 2439
Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 2457
Transport in Two-Dimensional Semiconductors......Page 2465
Treated Surfaces, Optical Properties of......Page 2473
Tunneling Devices......Page 2486
Valence Photoemission......Page 2495
van der Waals Bonding and Inert Gases......Page 2502
Vapor Transport Processing: Mechanisms......Page 2507
Vapor Transport Processing: Models and Simulations......Page 2512
Waves in Random Media......Page 2522
X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy......Page 2533
X-Ray Sources......Page 2537
X-Ray Standing Wave Techniques......Page 2544
X-Ray Topography......Page 2556