Medical Image Analysis, Second Edition

Cover......Page 1
Medical Image Analysis, 2nd Edition......Page 5
ISBN 978-0-470-62205-6......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION......Page 14
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 17
1.1. Medical Imaging: A Collaborative Paradigm......Page 18
1.2. Medical Imaging Modalities......Page 19
1.3.1 Understanding Physiology and Imaging Medium......Page 22
1.3.4 Data Acquisition and Image Reconstruction......Page 23
1.4 General Performance Measures......Page 24
1.4.1 An Example of Performance Measure......Page 26
1.5 Biomedical Image Processing and Analysis......Page 27
1.6.1 Digital Image Representation......Page 30
1.6.2 Basic MATLAB Image Toolbox Commands......Page 32
1.7.1 Imagepro Image Processing Interface......Page 35
1.8 Imagej and Other Image Processing Software Packages......Page 36
1.9 Exercises......Page 37
1.11 Definitions......Page 38
2 IMAGE FORMATION......Page 39
2.1 Image Coordinate System......Page 40
2.1.1 2-D Image Rotation......Page 41
2.1.2 3-D Image Rotation and Translation Transformation......Page 42
2.3 Point Source and Impulse Functions......Page 43
2.4 Probability and Random Variable Functions......Page 45
2.4.1 Conditional and Joint Probability Density Functions......Page 46
2.4.2 Independent and Orthogonal Random Variables......Page 47
2.5 Image Formation......Page 48
2.5.1 PSF and Spatial Resolution......Page 51
2.5.2 Signal-to-Noise Ratio......Page 53
2.6 Pin-hole Imaging......Page 55
2.7 Fourier Transform......Page 56
2.7.1 Sinc Function......Page 59
2.8 Radon Transform......Page 60
2.9 Sampling......Page 62
2.10 Discrete Fourier Transform......Page 66
2.11 Wavelet Transform......Page 68
2.12 Exercises......Page 76
2.13 References......Page 78
3.1 Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 80
3.2 Electromagnetic Radiation for Image Formation......Page 81
3.3.1 Coherent or Rayleigh Scattering......Page 82
3.3.2 Photoelectric Absorption......Page 83
3.3.4 Pair Production......Page 84
3.5.1 Ionized Chambers and Proportional Counters......Page 85
3.5.2 Semiconductor Detectors......Page 87
3.5.4 Scintillation Detectors......Page 88
3.6 Detector Subsystem Output Voltage Pulse......Page 91
3.8 References......Page 93
4 MEDICAL IMAGING MODALITIES: X-RAY IMAGING......Page 94
4.1 X-Ray Imaging......Page 95
4.2 X-Ray Generation......Page 96
4.3 X-Ray 2-D Projection Imaging......Page 99
4.4 X-Ray Mammography......Page 101
4.5 X-Ray CT......Page 103
4.6 Spiral X-Ray CT......Page 107
4.7 Contrast Agent, Spatial Resolution, and SNR......Page 110
4.8 Exercises......Page 111
4.9 References......Page 112
5 MEDICAL IMAGING MODALITIES: MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING......Page 113
5.1 MRI Principles......Page 114
5.2 MR Instrumentation......Page 124
5.3 MRI Pulse Sequences......Page 126
5.3.1 Spin-Echo Imaging......Page 128
5.3.2 Inversion Recovery Imaging......Page 132
5.3.3 Echo Planar Imaging......Page 133
5.3.4 Gradient Echo Imaging......Page 137
5.4 Flow Imaging......Page 139
5.5 fMRI......Page 143
5.6 Diffusion Imaging......Page 144
5.7 Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and SNR......Page 149
5.8 Exercises......Page 151
5.9 References......Page 152
6.1 Radioactivity......Page 153
6.2 SPECT......Page 154
6.2.1 Detectors and Data Acquisition System......Page 156
6.2.2 Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and Signal-to-Noise Ratio in SPECT Imaging......Page 159
6.3 PET......Page 162
6.3.2 Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and SNR in PET Imaging......Page 164
6.4 Dual-Modality Spect-CT and PET-CT Scanners......Page 165
6.5 Exercises......Page 168
6.6 References......Page 169
7.1 Propagation of Sound in a Medium......Page 170
7.2 Reflection and Refraction......Page 172
7.3 Transmission of Ultrasound Waves in a Multilayered Medium......Page 173
7.4 Attenuation......Page 175
7.5 Ultrasound Reflection Imaging......Page 176
7.6 Ultrasound Imaging Instrumentation......Page 177
7.7 Imaging with Ultrasound: A-Mode......Page 179
7.8 Imaging with Ultrasound: M-Mode......Page 180
7.9 Imaging with Ultrasound: B-Mode......Page 181
7.10 Doppler Ultrasound Imaging......Page 182
7.11 Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and SNR......Page 183
7.12 Exercises......Page 184
7.13 References......Page 185
8 IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION......Page 186
8.1.1 The Central Slice Theorem......Page 187
8.1.3 Backprojection Method......Page 189
8.2 Iterative Algebraic Reconstruction Methods......Page 193
8.3 Estimation Methods......Page 195
8.4 Fourier Reconstruction Methods......Page 198
8.5.1 Image Reconstruction in X-Ray CT......Page 199
8.5.2 Image Reconstruction in Nuclear Emission Computed Tomography: SPECT and PET......Page 201
8.5.2.1 A General Approach to ML-EM Algorithms......Page 202
8.5.2.2 A Multigrid EM Algorithm......Page 203
8.5.3 Image Reconstruction in Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 205
8.5.4 Image Reconstruction in Ultrasound Imaging......Page 206
8.6 Exercises......Page 207
8.7 References......Page 208
9 IMAGE PROCESSING AND ENHANCEMENT......Page 211
9.1 Spatial Domain Methods......Page 212
9.1.1 Histogram Transformation and Equalization......Page 213
9.1.2 Histogram Modification......Page 215
9.1.4 Image Subtraction......Page 216
9.1.5 Neighborhood Operations......Page 217
9.1.5.2 Adaptive Arithmetic Mean Filter......Page 219
9.1.5.3 Image Sharpening and Edge Enhancement......Page 220
9.1.5.4 Feature Enhancement Using Adaptive Neighborhood Processing......Page 221
9.2 Frequency Domain Filtering......Page 224
9.2.1 Wiener Filtering......Page 225
9.2.2 Constrained Least Square Filtering......Page 226
9.2.3 Low-Pass Filtering......Page 227
9.2.5 Homomorphic Filtering......Page 229
9.3 Wavelet Transform for Image Processing......Page 232
9.3.1 Image Smoothing and Enhancement Using Wavelet Transform......Page 235
9.4 Exercises......Page 238
9.5 References......Page 240
10.1 Edge-Based Image Segmentation......Page 241
10.1.1 Edge Detection Operations......Page 242
10.1.2 Boundary Tracking......Page 243
10.1.3 Hough Transform......Page 245
10.2 Pixel-Based Direct Classification Methods......Page 247
10.2.1 Optimal Global Thresholding......Page 249
10.2.2.1 Data Clustering......Page 251
10.2.2.2 k-Means Clustering......Page 253
10.2.2.3 Fuzzy c-Means Clustering......Page 254
10.2.2.4 An Adaptive FCM Algorithm......Page 256
10.3.1 Region-Growing......Page 257
10.3.2 Region-Splitting......Page 259
10.4 Advanced Segmentation Methods......Page 260
10.4.1 Estimation-Model Based Adaptive Segmentation......Page 261
10.4.2 Image Segmentation Using Neural Networks......Page 266
10.4.2.1 Backpropagation Neural Network for Classification......Page 267
10.4.2.2 The RBF Network......Page 270
10.4.2.3 Segmentation of Arterial Structure in Digital Subtraction Angiograms......Page 271
10.5 Exercises......Page 273
10.6 References......Page 274
11 IMAGE REPRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND CLASSIFICATION......Page 277
11.1.1 Statistical Pixel-Level Features......Page 280
11.1.2 Shape Features......Page 282
11.1.2.1 Boundary Encoding: Chain Code......Page 283
11.1.2.3 Moments for Shape Description......Page 285
11.1.2.4 Morphological Processing for Shape Description......Page 286
11.1.3 Texture Features......Page 292
11.1.4 Relational Features......Page 294
11.2 Feature Selection for Classification......Page 295
11.2.1 Linear Discriminant Analysis......Page 297
11.2.2 PCA......Page 300
11.2.3 GA-Based Optimization......Page 301
11.3.1 Statistical Classification Methods......Page 304
11.3.1.2 Bayesian Classifier......Page 305
11.3.2 Rule-Based Systems......Page 306
11.3.3.1 Neuro-Fuzzy Pattern Classification......Page 308
11.3.4 Support Vector Machine for Classification......Page 314
11.4 Image Analysis and Classification Example: \"Difficult-To-Diagnose\" Mammographic Microcalcifications......Page 315
11.5 Exercises......Page 318
11.6 References......Page 319
12 IMAGE REGISTRATION......Page 322
12.1 Rigid-Body Transformation......Page 325
12.2 Principal Axes Registration......Page 327
12.3 Iterative Principal Axes Registration......Page 330
12.4.1 Similarity Transformation for Point-Based Registration......Page 334
12.4.2 Weighted Features-Based Registration......Page 335
12.5 Elastic Deformation-Based Registration......Page 336
12.6 Exercises......Page 341
12.7 References......Page 342
13 IMAGE VISUALIZATION......Page 345
13.2 Stereo Vision and Semi-3-D Display Methods......Page 346
13.3 Surface- and Volume-Based 3-D Display Methods......Page 348
13.3.1 Surface Visualization......Page 349
13.3.2 Volume Visualization......Page 354
13.4 VR-Based Interactive Visualization......Page 357
13.5 Exercises......Page 359
13.6 References......Page 360
14.1 Multiparameter Medical Imaging and Analysis......Page 363
14.3 Optical Imaging and Other Emerging Modalities......Page 367
14.3.1 Optical Microscopy......Page 368
14.3.3 Optical Coherence Tomography......Page 370
14.3.4 Diffuse Reflectance and Transillumination Imaging......Page 372
14.3.5 Photoacoustic Imaging: An Emerging Technology......Page 373
14.4 Model-Based and Multiscale Analysis......Page 374
14.5 References......Page 376
INDEX......Page 379