Into the Nano Era: Moore’s Law Beyond Planar Silicon CMOS

Cover......Page 1
Foreword Silicon and Electronics......Page 7
Foreword Silicon and the III-V\'s: Semiconductor Electronics (Electron, Hole, and Photon) Forever......Page 9
Preface......Page 12
State-of-the-Art......Page 14
Future Directions......Page 15
Acknowledgments......Page 16
Contributors\' Acknowledgement......Page 18
Contents......Page 20
List of Contributors......Page 26
Part I Historical Background......Page 28
Silicon: Child and Progenitor of Revolution......Page 29
References......Page 35
Introduction......Page 37
The History of Moore\'s Law......Page 38
The Microeconomics of Moore\'s Law......Page 49
The Macroeconomics of Moore\'s Law......Page 56
Moore\'s Law Meets Moore\'s Wall: What Is Likely to Happen......Page 58
Conclusion......Page 61
Appendix A......Page 62
References......Page 64
Part II State-of-the-Art......Page 65
Introduction......Page 66
The Empirical Pseudopotential Method......Page 67
Ab Initio Pseudopotentials and the Electronic Structure Problem......Page 72
New Algorithms for the Nanoscale: Silicon Leads the Way......Page 75
Optical Properties of Silicon Quantum Dots......Page 77
Doping Silicon Nanocrystals......Page 80
References......Page 83
Introduction......Page 85
From Empirical to First-Principles......Page 87
First-Principles Theory......Page 90
First-Principles Theory at Non-zero Temperatures......Page 94
Discussion......Page 97
References......Page 98
Introduction......Page 103
Defect Interactions in Single-Crystalline Silicon......Page 104
Precipitation Behavior, Chemical State, and Interaction of Copper with Extended Defects in Single-Crystalline and Multicrystalline Silicon......Page 108
Precipitation Behavior, Chemical State, and Interaction of Iron with Extended Defects in Silicon......Page 115
Pathways for Metal Contamination in Solar Cells......Page 120
Effect of Thermal Treatments on Metal Distributions and on Device Performance......Page 123
Discussion: Chemical States of Metals in mc-Si......Page 125
Discussion: Interactions between Metals and Structural Defects......Page 128
Discussion:  Engineering of Metal-Related Nanodefects by Altering the Distributions and Chemical States of Metals in mc-Si......Page 130
Summary and Conclusions......Page 132
References......Page 133
Introduction: The Silicon/Silicon Oxide Interface at the Heart of Electronics......Page 137
Introduction......Page 139
Chemical Composition of Oxidized Surfaces......Page 140
Structure and Morphology of Oxidized Surfaces......Page 144
Contamination Issues Associated with Oxidized Surfaces......Page 146
Mechanism of Hydrogen Termination......Page 148
Structure and Morphology of Hydrogen-Terminated Silicon Surfaces......Page 150
Si(100) Etched in Buffered HF Solutions......Page 151
Si(111) Etched in Buffered HF Solutions......Page 152
Mechanism of Preferential Etching......Page 156
Regime 1: Oxygen Insertion into Near Surface Silicon Layer (Top Two Silicon Layers)......Page 160
Initial Oxidation of Hydrogen-Terminated Silicon......Page 161
Aqueous Chemistry of Hydrogen-Terminated Silicon and the Role of Dissolved Oxygen......Page 162
Oxygen and Air Interaction with Hydrogen-Terminated Silicon Surfaces......Page 163
Water Vapor Interaction with Hydrogen-Terminated Silicon Surfaces......Page 168
Introduction......Page 171
Silicon Surface Preparation and High-k Growth: The Impact of Thin Oxide Films on Nucleation and Performance......Page 172
Non-Idealities in High-k Gate Dielectric Growth on Silicon......Page 173
Improving the Nucleation-Scaling Trade-Off......Page 175
Summary......Page 179
Post-Treatment of the High-k Layer: Nitridation......Page 180
The pFET Threshold Voltage Issue: Oxygen Vacancies......Page 181
Threshold Voltage Control: Oxygen and Metal Ions......Page 182
References......Page 185
Enhanced Carrier Mobility in Si under Biaxial Tensile Strain......Page 193
Devices......Page 194
Strain-Relaxed SiGe Buffer Layers......Page 195
SGOI and SSOI Substrates......Page 199
Defect-Free (Elastic) Strain Relaxation......Page 202
Enhanced Hole Mobility via Biaxial Compressive Strain......Page 205
Hybrid Crystal Orientation......Page 207
Uniaxial Strain......Page 208
Summary......Page 209
References......Page 210
Introduction......Page 215
Planar Bulk MOSFET Scaling......Page 217
Thin-Body Transistor Structures......Page 220
Ultra-Thin Body (UTB) MOSFET......Page 221
Double-Gate (DG) MOSFET......Page 223
FinFET......Page 224
Optimization of FinFET Layout Orientation......Page 228
Back-Gated (BG) MOSFET......Page 229
Fundamental Scaling Limit and Ultimate MOSFET Structure......Page 231
High-k Gate Dielectrics......Page 233
Metallic Gate Electrode Materials......Page 234
Enhancement of Carrier Mobilities......Page 237
Reduction of Parasitic Components......Page 239
Summary......Page 240
References......Page 241
Part III Future Directions......Page 248
Conventional ``Top-Down\'\' Fabrication......Page 249
``Bottom-Up\'\' Fabrication......Page 250
Strain-Induced Nanostructures......Page 251
Catalyst Nanoparticles......Page 257
Nanowire Growth......Page 260
Germanium and Compound-Semiconductor Nanowires......Page 263
Doping Nanowires......Page 265
Connecting Nanowires......Page 266
Comparison of Semiconducting Nanowires and Carbon Nanotubes......Page 272
Field-Effect Transistors......Page 273
Interconnections......Page 274
Acknowledgement......Page 275
References......Page 276
Top-Down Fabrication vs. Bottom-Up Assembly......Page 279
Typical Molecular Device Characteristics......Page 280
MolMOS: Integrating CMOS and Nanoelectronics......Page 281
The CMOS/Nano Interface......Page 282
CMOS/Nano Co-design......Page 284
The Crossbar Array for Molecular Electronics......Page 286
Device Reverse Bias Current and Array Size......Page 287
Noise Considerations......Page 288
Programmable Logic via the Crossbar Array......Page 289
Signal Restoration at the Nanoscale: The Goto Pair......Page 290
Hysteresis and NDR based Devices in Programmable Logic......Page 292
Augmenting the PMLA with CMOS......Page 294
Array Access for Programmability......Page 295
A More Complete Picture of the Overall Architecture......Page 296
Functional Verification of a Stand-Alone Nanoscale PMLA......Page 298
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 300
References......Page 301
Revising the Model......Page 303
Bottom-Up Feature Definition......Page 304
Defect and Variation Tolerance......Page 305
Differentiation......Page 306
NanoPLA Architecture......Page 307
Wire Sparing......Page 310
Crosspoint Defects......Page 312
Roundup......Page 313
Testing and Configuration......Page 314
Abstraction Hierarchy for Computation......Page 315
References......Page 317
What Is Quantum Computing?......Page 319
History......Page 320
Fundamentals......Page 321
Quantum Algorithms......Page 323
Realizing a Quantum Computer......Page 325
Josephson Junction Circuits......Page 328
Semiconductor Quantum Dots......Page 330
Ion Traps......Page 333
References......Page 334
Part IV Afterwords......Page 336
Kroemer\'s Lemma of New Technology......Page 337
Semiconductor Laser......Page 338
Lessons......Page 339
Quantum Wires......Page 340
Quantum Dots......Page 341
``Loose\'\' Nanoparticles......Page 342
Magnetic Flux Quantization......Page 343
Meta-Materials......Page 344
Research vs. Applications Re-visited......Page 345
References......Page 346
The End of Scaling......Page 347
The ``Beginning\'\' of Architecture......Page 348
Silicon Stands Tall......Page 349
The Silicon Wart......Page 350
Beyond Lithography......Page 351
Conclusion......Page 352
Citations......Page 353
Index......Page 354