Encyclopedia of Nanotechnology

000......Page 1
01_Halftitle.pdf......Page 2
02_Title_Page.pdf......Page 4
03_Copyright.pdf......Page 5
04_Preface.pdf......Page 6
05_Editor_Bio.pdf......Page 10
06_Section_Editors_page.pdf......Page 12
07_Advisory_Board.pdf......Page 14
08_LOC.pdf......Page 16
Definition......Page 52
AFM-FRS Setup......Page 53
System Configuration for 3-D Micromanipulation......Page 54
System Configuration for 3-D Nanomanipulation......Page 56
Pick-and-Place Nanomanipulation......Page 58
Conclusion and Future Directions......Page 59
References......Page 60
Introduction and DFT Foundations......Page 62
Theoretical Background......Page 63
Numerical Details......Page 64
DFT Applications to Nanostructures......Page 65
DFT Simulations of InN Nanowires......Page 66
AC Electrokinetics of Colloidal Particles......Page 68
AC Electric Field Interactions with Nanoparticle Suspensions......Page 69
AC Electrokinetic Techniques......Page 70
AC Electrokinetic Forces on Nanoparticles......Page 74
Definition......Page 76
Simple Model for Small Voltages......Page 77
ACEO Pumping and Mixing......Page 79
References......Page 80
Definition......Page 81
Overview......Page 82
Ultrasonic Atomization......Page 83
Synthesis of Polymeric Microparticles and Nanoparticles......Page 85
Drug Encapsulation......Page 87
Multilayer Nanoparticle Synthesis and Encapsulation......Page 90
Acoustic Particle Agglomeration......Page 91
Theory......Page 92
System Design......Page 93
Designs Using a Localized Transducer......Page 94
Synonyms......Page 96
Theory......Page 97
Acoustophoretic Enrichment and Depletion of Cells and Particles......Page 98
Acoustophoretic Separation/Fractionation......Page 99
References......Page 100
Shape-Memory CNT-Polymer Composites......Page 101
CNT-Polymer Composite Actuators......Page 102
CNT-Polymer Composite IR Sensors......Page 105
Cross-References......Page 106
Definition......Page 107
Surface Plasmons: Qualitative Description......Page 108
Mechanical Input......Page 110
Chemically Driven Plasmonic Devices......Page 111
Electrochemically Driven Active Plasmonic Devices......Page 113
Controlling Surface Plasmon Polaritons......Page 116
Electric Field-Driven Active SPP Devices......Page 117
Optically Field-Driven Active SPP Devices......Page 118
Future Directions for Research......Page 119
Adhesion......Page 120
Climbing and Adhesion......Page 121
Wet Adhesion - Capillary Forces......Page 122
Wet Adhesion - Viscous Forces......Page 123
Toe Pad Micro- and Nanostructure......Page 124
Viscosity and Thickness of Fluid Layer......Page 126
Adhesion and Friction Forces......Page 127
Behavioral Strategies of Adhering Frogs......Page 131
Biomimetic Advances......Page 132
References......Page 133
Synonyms......Page 134
Overview and Definitions......Page 135
Physical and Chemical Principles......Page 136
Applications......Page 138
References......Page 140
Probe Design......Page 141
Probe Fabrication......Page 143
Definition......Page 144
Set-Up of FM-AFM......Page 145
Origin of the Frequency Shift......Page 146
Theory of FM-AFM......Page 147
Applications of FM-AFM......Page 148
Definition......Page 150
Experimental Setup......Page 151
Theory of Tapping-Mode AFM......Page 153
Cross-References......Page 155
Anamorphic Particle Tracking......Page 156
The Morpho-functional Vascular Unit......Page 157
The Morpho-functional Vascular Unit in Pathological Settings......Page 159
The Mechanisms of Angiogenesis......Page 160
The Mechanisms of Pathological Angiogenesis......Page 165
References......Page 167
Overview......Page 168
Basic Principles......Page 169
Key Research Findings......Page 170
Future Directions for Research......Page 171
Definition......Page 172
Chromatography......Page 173
Single Molecules Analysis......Page 175
Future Directions......Page 176
References......Page 177
Introduction......Page 178
Individual Sensors......Page 181
Sensor Arrays......Page 182
Naturally Occurring Loads and Strains......Page 184
The Problem of Embedding Holes and Synthetic Sensors......Page 185
References......Page 186
DOE Epiretinal Device Function......Page 187
Internal Components......Page 188
Metals......Page 189
In Vitro and In Vivo Testing......Page 190
Fluorescein Angiogram......Page 191
Definition......Page 192
Data Evaluation and Calibration......Page 193
Applications......Page 195
Cross-References......Page 196
Definition......Page 197
Surface Roughness and Friction Force Measurements......Page 198
Adhesion Measurements......Page 202
Electrical Properties Measurements......Page 203
In Situ Characterization of Local Deformation Studies......Page 204
Nanoindentation Measurements......Page 205
Localized Surface Elasticity and Viscoelasticity Mapping......Page 206
References......Page 210
Atomic Layer Chemical Vapor Deposition (ALCVD)......Page 211
Key Features of an ALD Process......Page 212
Precursor Considerations......Page 214
Precursor Types......Page 215
Materials Grown by ALD......Page 217
Molecular Layer Deposition......Page 218
Plasma-Assisted ALD......Page 219
Overview of Key Application Areas......Page 220
Automatic Data Analysis Workflow for RNAi......Page 222
Overview......Page 224
Energy Conversion into Forces and Motion......Page 225
Comb Capacitors......Page 227
Analysis of a Fixed-Guided Beam Flexure......Page 229
Analysis of a Folded-Beam Flexure......Page 230
Motion Quantification......Page 231
Fabrication Methods......Page 233
References......Page 236
Synthetic and Natural Biomaterial Interactions......Page 237
Dental Prostheses......Page 238
Mechanical Effects......Page 239
Nanoscale......Page 240
Macroscale......Page 242
References......Page 244
Applications and Clinical Problems......Page 245
Adhesives in Dentistry......Page 246
Bone Cements......Page 247
Fibrin Glue......Page 248
Nanostructured Biological Adhesives......Page 250
References......Page 251
Cell Membrane Proteins: Transporter Macromolecules......Page 252
Bilayer Lipid Membranes: A Breadboard for Bioderived Smart Material Concepts......Page 254
Concepts for Ionic Active Materials Using Bioderived Membranes......Page 255
Fabrication Methods and Recent Advances......Page 256
Bioderived Microhydraulic Actuators......Page 259
Hair Cell Sensors......Page 262
References......Page 263
Overview......Page 264
Biofilms......Page 265
Cellular-Communication Inside Microfluidic Systems......Page 266
Other Uses of Lab-On-A-Chip Technologies......Page 268
References......Page 269
Introduction......Page 270
The Circuits......Page 271
Pseudo-differential Class-AB Log-Domain Biquads......Page 272
The Input Signal Conditioner - The Geometric Mean Splitter (GMS)......Page 277
The Automatic Gain-Control Circuits......Page 278
AGC Stages 1 and 2: The GMS and Low-Frequency LPF......Page 279
AGC Stages 3 and 4: The E-cell and Wide Linear-Range OTA......Page 280
AGC Simulation and Measured Results......Page 281
Active OZGF Channel-Measured Results......Page 282
Summary, Discussion, and Conclusion......Page 291
References......Page 293
Definition......Page 294
DNA......Page 295
Peptides......Page 296
Proteins......Page 297
Cells......Page 298
Mesocrystals......Page 299
Conclusions and Outlook......Page 300
References......Page 301
Overview......Page 302
Structure and Working Principle......Page 303
RTT Functionalization on Gold Surface......Page 304
Cell Culture......Page 306
Cell Adhesion Manipulation......Page 308
Cell Detachment Manipulation at a Cellular Level......Page 310
Cell Detachment Manipulation at a Subcellular Level......Page 311
Future Directions......Page 313
References......Page 314
Inspiring Biological Systems......Page 315
Arthropod Hairs......Page 316
An Engineering Perspective on Biomimetic Hairs......Page 318
Hair-Sensor Systems for Operation in Air: A Case Study......Page 319
Biomimetic Hairs in Water......Page 323
Acknowledgments......Page 326
Synonyms......Page 327
Microneedles......Page 328
Mosquito Anatomy......Page 329
Mosquito-Inspired Microneedles......Page 330
Mosquito Fascicle Insertion Dynamics......Page 332
Conclusions......Page 334
References......Page 335
The Available EAP Materials......Page 336
Applications of EAP......Page 338
Challenges, Trend, and Potential Development......Page 339
References......Page 340
Introduction......Page 341
Lessons from Nature and Applications......Page 342
References......Page 347
Introduction......Page 349
The Mussel Adhesive Proteins (MAPs)......Page 350
Production of Recombinant MAPs......Page 351
Production of MAP Mimetic Adhesive Polymers......Page 354
Tubeworms......Page 355
Brown Algae......Page 357
Barnacles......Page 358
Perspectives......Page 359
Definition......Page 360
Engineering of Iridescent Devices......Page 361
Cell Culture......Page 365
Diatoms and Coccolithophores......Page 366
Iridoviruses......Page 368
Future Research......Page 369
References......Page 370
Overview......Page 371
Hard Lithography......Page 373
Soft Lithography......Page 374
Molecular Patterning in Biology......Page 376
Future Directions......Page 377
References......Page 378
Biornametics  Architecture Defined by Natural Patterns......Page 379
Overview......Page 380
Enzymes and Antibodies......Page 381
Nucleic Acids......Page 382
Artificial Bioreceptors......Page 383
Immobilization Techniques......Page 384
Carbon Nanotube Biosensors......Page 385
Conducting Polymer Biosensors......Page 386
Surface-Plasmon Resonance (SPR)......Page 388
Molecular Beacons and Quantum Dots......Page 390
Mass Sensitive Biosensors......Page 392
Microarray Biosensors......Page 394
References......Page 395
Overview......Page 396
The Remodeling Cells......Page 397
The Remodeling Cycle......Page 398
Cortical Versus Trabecular Remodeling......Page 399
Key Research Findings......Page 400
Mechanics in Bone Remodeling......Page 401
Future Directions......Page 402
References......Page 404
Overview......Page 405
Effect of Adsorbed Gases......Page 408
Effect of Monolayers and Multilayers......Page 409
Effect of Chemical Films......Page 410
Effect of Chain Length (or Molecular Weight)......Page 411
References......Page 412
Bulk Acoustic Wave MEMS Resonators......Page 413
Overview......Page 414
Switch Structure and Actuation Mechanisms......Page 415
RF Performance......Page 416
Electromechanical Considerations: Static Behavior......Page 418
Electromechanical Considerations: Dynamic Behavior......Page 420
Fabrication Methods......Page 421
Packaging......Page 422
Failure Mechanisms and Reliability......Page 423
References......Page 424
Introduction......Page 425
Mathematical Modeling......Page 426
Revisiting the Assumptions for Microscale Applications......Page 428
Why Capillary Origami?......Page 434
Principles......Page 435
Applications......Page 437
References......Page 438
Bonding and Wetting Properties of Metals on CNTs......Page 439
Electronic Structures of CNT-Metal Contacts......Page 440
Carbon Nanotube-Metal Interface......Page 442
Motivation......Page 443
Limitations of Copper Interconnections......Page 444
The Case for Carbon Nanotube Interconnects......Page 446
Models of CNTs as Interconnects......Page 448
Practical Implementation: Fabrication State of the Art and Outstanding Issues......Page 449
Conclusions and Outlook for CNTs as Chip Interconnections......Page 452
References......Page 453
Cell Morphology......Page 454
Background......Page 455
Cellular Uptake of Nanoparticles and Their Fate at Cellular Level......Page 456
The Cellular Stress Induced by Nanoparticles and Its Biological Consequences......Page 459
Future Directions of Research......Page 460
References......Page 461
Charge Transport Through Organic Molecules......Page 462
Two Pathway Models......Page 463
Techniques to Measure Charge Transport in Self-Assembled Monolayers......Page 464
Key Research Findings......Page 465
Future Directions for Research......Page 467
Chemical Etching......Page 468
Overview......Page 469
Wet Etching......Page 470
Future Directions for Research......Page 472
Definition......Page 473
Classification by the Precursor Type and Feeding Procedure......Page 474
Synthesis of Vertically Aligned Carbon Nanotubes by CCVD......Page 475
References......Page 477
Characteristics of Chitosan......Page 478
Gene Delivery......Page 479
Targeted Delivery......Page 480
Chitosan-Based Environmental-Responsive Particles......Page 481
References......Page 483
Synonyms......Page 484
Electrochemical Biosensors......Page 485
Impedimetric Biosensors......Page 486
Ion-Sensitive Field Effect Transistors (ISFET)......Page 488
Magnetic Biosensors......Page 489
Micromechanical Cantilevers......Page 490
References......Page 491
Overview......Page 492
Limitations of Pre- and Inter-CMOS-MEMS......Page 493
Additive MEMS Structures on CMOS Substrate......Page 494
Thin-Film Post-CMOS-MEMS Dry Processes......Page 495
Bulk CMOS-MEMS Dry Process......Page 496
An Improved Bulk CMOS-MEMS Process......Page 497
Combined Wet/Dry Processes......Page 498
References......Page 499
Introduction......Page 500
CMOS-CNT Integration......Page 501
Intra-CMOS (Localized Heating)......Page 502
Post-CMOS (Localized Heating)......Page 504
Summary......Page 506
CNT Arrays......Page 507
Main Text......Page 508
Advantages of Compliant Mechanisms......Page 509
Example Applications of Compliant Mechanisms......Page 510
Analysis and Design of Compliant Mechanisms......Page 512
Introduction......Page 514
Fluid Mechanics......Page 515
Electrochemistry......Page 516
Molecular Biology......Page 517
Electrokinetic Phenomena......Page 519
Closure......Page 520
Computer Modeling of Nanomaterials......Page 521
Atomistic Modeling......Page 522
Molecular Dynamics Technique......Page 523
Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Nanomaterials......Page 524
Mesoscopic Modeling......Page 525
Discrete Dislocation Dynamics......Page 527
Mesoscopic Model for Nanofibrous Materials......Page 528
Cross-References......Page 530
Definition......Page 531
Chemoinformatics Solutions......Page 532
Phenotype Identification, Validation, and Classification......Page 533
Image Processing and Cell Morphology Quantification......Page 534
RNAi HCS Applying G-CellIQ......Page 535
Concentration Polarization......Page 536
Electrical Double Layer (EDL) and Electroosmotic Flow......Page 537
Electrokinetic Theory for Micro/Nanochannels......Page 538
Enrichment/Depletion Effects......Page 539
Nonlinear Current-Voltage Characteristics......Page 540
Propagation of Concentration Polarization......Page 542
Summary......Page 543
Overview......Page 544
Basic Methodology......Page 546
Measurement Based on the Organic Field-Effect Transistor (OFET)......Page 547
Variable Range Hopping (VRH) Transport......Page 548
Multiple Trap and Release (MTR) Transport......Page 549
Organic Light-Emitting Field-Effect Transistor (OLEFET)......Page 550
Operating Principle......Page 551
Point Spread Function of the Confocal Microscope......Page 552
Single-Point Resolution in the Focal Plane......Page 553
V(z)......Page 554
Coherence in Brightfield and Fluorescence Microscopy......Page 555
Apodization......Page 556
Deficiencies of the Scalar and Paraxial Approximation: Effects of the Vector Character of Light......Page 557
Scanning Techniques......Page 558
Detection......Page 559
Spinning Disk Confocal Microscopes......Page 560
Structured Illumination Microscopy (SIM)......Page 561
Multiphoton Microscopy......Page 562
Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)......Page 563
Confocal Microscopy Sensitive to Phase......Page 564
Super-Resolution by Prior Knowledge (Profilometry, PALM/STORM)......Page 565
Super-Resolution due to Nonlinearity (SSIM, STED)......Page 566
Cylindrical Gold Nanoparticles......Page 567
History of Therapeutic Systems Applied on the Skin......Page 568
Skin Barrier......Page 569
Percutaneous Absorption......Page 570
Nano- and Microtechnologies in Dermal and Transdermal Delivery......Page 571
References......Page 576
Dielectrophoresis as an Isolation Method......Page 577
Preparation of Buffy Coat Blood and Whole Blood Experiments......Page 578
Key Research Findings......Page 580
Future Directions for Research......Page 583
Dielectric Force......Page 584
Polarization......Page 585
Frequency-Dependent Charge Processes......Page 586
Interfacial Polarization of Particles......Page 588
Translational Force on a Dipole in a Nonuniform Field......Page 590
Dielectrophoresis in an AC Field......Page 591
Dielectrophoresis in a Field with a Spatially Dependent Phase......Page 592
Applications of Dielectrophoresis......Page 593
Definitions......Page 594
Fundamentals......Page 595
Nucleic Acids......Page 596
Dielectric Polarization Parameters......Page 598
Counterion Fluctuation Polarization for DNA......Page 600
Maxwell-Wagner Polarization for DNA......Page 601
Dielectrophoresis......Page 602
Dielectrophoresis of DNA: An Introductory Example......Page 604
Dielectrophoresis of DNA: General......Page 607
Dielectrophoresis of RNA......Page 609
References......Page 610
DEP Assembly Technique......Page 611
Nanotube Bearings......Page 613
Nanotube Switch......Page 614
Future Directions for Research......Page 615
Synonyms......Page 616
Description of the Method......Page 617
Applications of DPN......Page 620
Future Directions......Page 621
References......Page 622
Occurrence......Page 623
Liquid Meniscus Formation Due to Vapor Adsorption......Page 624
Capillary Force Calculation......Page 625
Meniscus Stretch and Liquid Film on Solid......Page 626
References......Page 627
Introduction......Page 628
Working Principle......Page 629
Biocharacterization on DNA Molecules......Page 631
Bibliography......Page 633
Operation Principles......Page 634
Basic Methodology and Key Research Findings......Page 635
Cross-References......Page 637
Physical Dry Etching......Page 638
Applications......Page 639
References......Page 640
Introduction......Page 641
History......Page 642
Wafer Preparation......Page 643
Wafer Flatness......Page 645
Photoresist Coating and Development......Page 646
Light Sources......Page 649
Immersion Systems......Page 650
Mask Making......Page 651
Computer Modeling......Page 652
Future Issues......Page 654
Overview and General Concept......Page 655
Synthesis of Dye-Doped Silica Nanoparticles......Page 657
Surface Functionalization of Dye-Doped NPs......Page 658
Bioconjugation Strategies......Page 659
Dye-Doped Nanoparticles and the Implications on Assay Kinetics......Page 660
References......Page 663
The Dynamic Clamp Concept......Page 664
History of Dynamic Clamp......Page 665
Simulating Electrotonic Connections (Gap Junctions)......Page 666
Examples of Dynamic Clamp Results......Page 667
Limitations......Page 668
Future Directions......Page 670
References......Page 671
Definition......Page 674
Overview......Page 675
Key Principles......Page 676
Bacteria......Page 677
Marine Invertebrates......Page 678
Bacteria......Page 679
Terrestrial Invertebrates......Page 680
Marine Invertebrates......Page 681
Freshwater Invertebrates......Page 682
Effects of Invertebrate Assemblages......Page 683
Glossary......Page 684
References......Page 685
Definition......Page 688
References......Page 695
Definitions......Page 696
References......Page 702
Overview......Page 703
Nanotechnology Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processes......Page 704
Electric Field-Directed Nanofabrication......Page 706
Future Work......Page 711
Definition......Page 713
Maxwell Mixture Theory......Page 714
Equivalent Circuit Model......Page 715
Complete Circuit Model......Page 716
Basic Methodology......Page 717
Impedance Labeling for Impedance Discrimination Based on Antigenic Expression......Page 718
Future Directions of Research......Page 720
Synonyms......Page 722
Electrical Impedance Tomography......Page 723
EIT Chip Fabrication......Page 725
Physarum polycephalum in Culture......Page 726
Results and Discussions......Page 727
Conclusion and Outlook......Page 728
References......Page 729
Basic Methodology......Page 730
Assembly Electrodes and Electric-Field Profiles......Page 732
Examples of Applications......Page 733
Cross-References......Page 734
Process Mechanism......Page 735
Tool Design......Page 737
Electrolytes......Page 738
Introduction......Page 739
Basics of Scanning Tunneling Microscopy......Page 740
Electrochemical (In-Situ) Scanning Tunneling Microscopy......Page 741
Structure of Single-Crystalline Surfaces......Page 742
Adsorption of Anions......Page 743
Adsorption and Self-Assembly of Organic Molecules......Page 744
Metal UPD and OPD......Page 745
Current-Distance Spectroscopy: Measurements of the Tunneling Barrier......Page 747
Single-Molecule Charge Transport and Switching......Page 748
EC-STM Based Nanostructuring......Page 750
References......Page 751
Energy-Level Alignment......Page 753
Schottky Contacts......Page 754
Interface Slope Parameter......Page 755
Metal-Dielectric-Organic Interfaces......Page 756
Charge Injection and Transport......Page 757
Injection-Limited Current......Page 758
Quasi-Ohmic Contact......Page 759
References......Page 760
Overview......Page 761
Applications......Page 763
References......Page 768
Synonyms......Page 769
Electron Optics......Page 770
Electron Sources......Page 771
Electron Lenses......Page 773
Stigmators......Page 774
Limitations of the Equipment......Page 775
Resists for Electron Beam Lithography......Page 776
Negative Resists......Page 777
Electron-Substrate Interactions......Page 778
Proximity Effects......Page 779
Electron Beam Lithography Systems......Page 782
Variable-Shaped Beam and Mask Projection EBL Systems......Page 783
Multi-beam EBL Systems......Page 785
Surface Plasmonic Devices......Page 788
Light Trapping for Solar Cells......Page 789
Micro and Nano Electromechanical Systems (MEMS and NEMS)......Page 790
References......Page 791
Sample Preparation......Page 792
Bright-Field TEM Imaging and Mass-Thickness Contrast......Page 793
Analytical Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 794
Electron Tomography......Page 795
Ion Beam Milling......Page 797
Electron Beam Damage......Page 798
References......Page 799
Overview......Page 800
Physics of Material Supply and Deposition......Page 801
Key Research Findings......Page 802
Cross-References......Page 803
Electronic Structure Calculations......Page 804
Introduction......Page 805
The Landauer-Büttiker Quantum Transport Theory......Page 807
Green Function......Page 808
Chemical Functionalization of Graphene Nanoribbons......Page 810
Chemical Functionalization in Carbon Nanotubes......Page 813
References......Page 818
Electronic Visual Prosthesis......Page 819
Introduction......Page 820
Electrospinning Setup......Page 821
Morphology of Electrospun Fibers......Page 822
Analytical Models for Fiber Diameter......Page 823
Applications and Publication Trends......Page 824
Outlook......Page 825
Definition......Page 826
Operation and Construction......Page 827
Transduction Principle......Page 829
Dynamic Model of Package......Page 830
Dominant Noise Sources, dB(A) Weighting, SNR Definition......Page 832
Other Techniques and Future Directions......Page 833
Introduction......Page 834
Electrocapillarity and Electrowetting......Page 835
Electrowetting and Electrowetting-On-Dielectric (EWOD)......Page 836
Theories and Equations......Page 837
Cross-References......Page 839
Definition......Page 840
Types of Visual Prostheses......Page 841
Image Capture......Page 843
Wireless Telemetry......Page 844
Current Research Progress......Page 846
References......Page 847
Overview......Page 848
EUV Light Sources......Page 849
EUV Multilayer Optics......Page 850
EUV Masks......Page 851
EUV Photoresists......Page 852
References......Page 853
Background......Page 854
Exposure......Page 855
Ag......Page 856
Fe......Page 857
Concluding Remarks......Page 858
References......Page 859
Extrusion Spinning......Page 860
Introduction......Page 862
Nano-TiO2, from Bare Nanoparticles to Sunscreen Formulation......Page 863
Pure TiO2......Page 864
TiO2 Nanomaterial......Page 865
Effect of pH on Nanoparticle Dispersion Stability......Page 866
Effect of Salinity on Nanoparticles\' Dispersion......Page 867
Pure Nano-TiO2......Page 868
TiO2 Nanomaterial......Page 869
Mobility Within Porous Media......Page 871
Evaluation of the Nanoparticle Photoactivity......Page 872
Conclusion......Page 873
References......Page 874
Field Electron Emission from Nanomaterials......Page 875
Emergence of Nanomaterials......Page 876
Introduction......Page 877
Practical Emitter Parameters......Page 878
Transmission-Coefficient Formulae for the CFE Regime......Page 880
Slope Correction Factor......Page 881
Comments......Page 882
Field Emission from CdS - A Case Study......Page 883
Appendix 1. Technical Conventions......Page 885
References......Page 887
Weak Formulation of Maxwell´s Equations......Page 888
Background: Photonic Microcavities......Page 890
Numerical Approach......Page 891
Numerical Results......Page 892
References......Page 893
Introduction to the Simulation of Plasmonic Devices......Page 894
Introduction to Finite-Difference Methods......Page 896
The FDFD Method in One Dimension......Page 897
The FDFD Method in Two and Three Dimensions......Page 899
Numerical Dispersion of the FDFD Algorithm......Page 900
Waveguiding Structures......Page 901
Future Research Directions......Page 902
Overview......Page 903
Basic Concepts......Page 904
Classical Electrodynamics of Quantum Systems......Page 908
References......Page 910
History......Page 911
Materials and Devices in the Active Layer......Page 912
Fabrication of Active Layer......Page 913
Electrical Transport of Active Layer......Page 914
Flexures......Page 916
FIB-CVD Process......Page 917
Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication......Page 918
Young´s Modulus......Page 919
Electrical Resistivity......Page 922
Manipulator......Page 924
Nanoinjector......Page 925
Definition......Page 927
Force Modulation Technique......Page 928
Ultrasound and Atomic Force Microscopy......Page 929
Indentation Modulus......Page 931
Subsurface Imaging......Page 932
References......Page 934
Definition......Page 935
Technical Setup of a Friction Force Microscope......Page 936
Atomic-Scale Friction and the Prandtl-Tomlinson Model......Page 937
Thermal Activation and the Velocity Dependence of Friction......Page 941
Future Research Directions......Page 942
Definition......Page 943
Biological Background......Page 944
Structural Properties of Sandfish Scales......Page 945
Mechanical Properties of Sandfish Scales......Page 946
Chemical Properties of Sandfish Scales......Page 947
References......Page 948
Brief Introduction to Fullerenes and Endohedral Fullerenes......Page 949
Drug Delivery with Nanomaterials and Fullerenes......Page 951
Exohedral Fullerene Derivatives for Biomedicine and Drug Delivery......Page 952
Surface-Derivatized Fullerenes with Drug Applications......Page 953
Fullerene Derivatives with Non-covalent Drugs and Interactions......Page 954
Fullerene Derivatives with Covalently Attached Drugs and Bioactive Moieties......Page 956
Metallofullerene Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Contrast Agents......Page 957
Metallofullerene Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 959
Future Directions......Page 960
References......Page 961
Covalent Functionalization......Page 962
Defect Group Functionalization......Page 963
Direct Sidewall Functionalization......Page 964
Surfactants......Page 965
Polynuclear Aromatic Compounds......Page 966
Ex Situ Approach: Decoration of CNTs with Pre-synthesized NPs......Page 967
In Situ Approach: Direct Formation of NPs onto the CNT Surface......Page 968
References......Page 969
Overview......Page 970
Photoluminescence Property......Page 971
Electrical Properties......Page 972
Material Properties of Extrinsic Doped ZnO Nanowires......Page 974
Photoconductance and Photoluminescence Properties......Page 975
Future Outlook......Page 977
References......Page 978
Overview......Page 980
Furnace Flow (Hot-Wall) Reactor......Page 982
Limitation of Gas Phase Process......Page 983
References......Page 984
Conventional Adhesives and the Gecko Adhesion System......Page 985
History of Gecko Adhesion Research......Page 986
Contact Mechanics of Patterned Surfaces......Page 987
Size Matters - The Principle of ``Contact Splitting´´......Page 988
Anisotropic Adhesion......Page 990
Artificial Gecko Adhesives......Page 992
References......Page 993
Overview......Page 994
Tokay Gecko......Page 995
Attachment Mechanisms......Page 996
Peeling......Page 998
Self-cleaning......Page 999
Fabrication of Biomimetic Gecko Skin......Page 1000
References......Page 1001
Gecko Feet......Page 1002
Indirect Clastogenic Mechanism......Page 1003
Detection of Primary DNA Alterations......Page 1004
Detection of Gene Mutations......Page 1005
SWCNTs......Page 1006
Cerium Dioxide......Page 1007
Titanium Dioxide......Page 1008
Iron Oxide......Page 1009
Cobalt and Compounds......Page 1010
Cross-References......Page 1011
References......Page 1012
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)......Page 1013
Photothermal Properties......Page 1014
Electrochemical Synthesis......Page 1015
Surface Modifications......Page 1016
Photothermal Therapy......Page 1017
References......Page 1018
Overview......Page 1019
Crystal Structure of Graphene......Page 1020
Electronic Properties of Graphene......Page 1021
Carrier Statistics in Graphene......Page 1022
Carrier Transport in Graphene......Page 1023
Graphene Nanostructures......Page 1025
Other Applications......Page 1027
References......Page 1028
Research Areas......Page 1029
Tribology of Renewable Energy Sources......Page 1030
Principles......Page 1031
Overview......Page 1032
Scalar Green´s Function Integral Equation Method for One-Dimensional Scattering Problems......Page 1033
Scalar Green´s Function Integral Equation Method for Two-Dimensional Scattering Problems......Page 1035
Dyadic Green´s Function Integral Equation Method for Three-Dimensional Problems......Page 1036
References......Page 1038
Introduction......Page 1039
Bottom Up: Self-assembly Process......Page 1040
Vapor Liquid Solid (VLS) Mechanism......Page 1041
VLS Kinetics......Page 1042
Discussion......Page 1043
Metal Thin Film-Based Catalysis......Page 1049
Discussions......Page 1050
Overview......Page 1051
Methodology......Page 1052
Discussions......Page 1053
Conclusions......Page 1056
References......Page 1058
Definition......Page 1059
Coriolis Vibratory Gyroscope Dynamics......Page 1060
Rate Gyroscope Operation......Page 1061
Angle Gyroscope Operation......Page 1063
Historical Milestones of MEMS Gyroscopes......Page 1065
Systematic Performance Parameters......Page 1066
Random Noise Performance Parameters......Page 1067
References......Page 1070
HGN......Page 1072
Genome......Page 1073
Viruses and Human Disease......Page 1074
Overview......Page 1075
Phylogenetics......Page 1076
Genome and Structure......Page 1077
How HIV Causes Disease......Page 1078
Prevention and Treatment......Page 1079
Nanotechnological Methodologies for HIV Detection/Quantification......Page 1081
Hollow Gold Nanoshells......Page 1082
Synthesis and Characterization......Page 1083
Targeted Photothermal Ablation Therapy......Page 1084
Drug Delivery......Page 1086
Photoacoustic Imaging......Page 1090
Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS)......Page 1091
References......Page 1092
Definition......Page 1093
Materials......Page 1094
Planar, Bulk Heterojunction, and Nanostructured Architectures......Page 1095
Advantages of Hybrid Technology......Page 1097
Challenges and Future Research Directions......Page 1098
Hyperelasticity......Page 1099
Overview......Page 1100
Basics......Page 1101
Key Research Findings......Page 1104
Future Research Directions......Page 1106
Overview......Page 1107
Microfabrication and Immersion Lithography......Page 1108
Phase Shift Photomasks......Page 1109
Development and Performance of Immersion Lithography......Page 1110
Double Exposure Immersion Lithography......Page 1111
Nanofabrication......Page 1112
References......Page 1113
Overview......Page 1114
Polymers for Photomask Pellicles......Page 1115
Immersion Fluid-Resist Interactions......Page 1116
References......Page 1119
Definition......Page 1120
Silver Nanoparticles......Page 1121
Antimicrobial Activity......Page 1122
In Vitro Toxicity......Page 1123
In Vivo Toxicity......Page 1125
Definition......Page 1128
General Overview of CNT Toxicity In Vivo......Page 1129
Determinants of CNT Biological Effects In Vivo......Page 1131
Remaining Issues Regarding CNT Toxicity......Page 1132
References......Page 1133
Synonyms......Page 1134
Skin Penetration......Page 1135
Central Nervous System Accumulation and Effects......Page 1136
Lung Inflammatory Responses to TiO2 NPs......Page 1137
Mechanisms of Action of TiO2......Page 1138
Gold Distribution After Intravenous Administration......Page 1139
References......Page 1140
Inertial Sensors......Page 1141
Overview......Page 1142
Poloxamers......Page 1143
Polyphosphazenes......Page 1144
Injectable Hydrogels as Drug Carriers......Page 1145
Injectable Hydrogels as Transplants in Regenerative Medicine......Page 1146
Introduction......Page 1147
Aeromechanical Components of a RoboBee......Page 1148
Aerodynamics of Flapping-Wings at Low Reynolds Numbers......Page 1149
Toward Autonomy......Page 1151
Actuators and Thoracic Mechanics......Page 1152
Altitude Control......Page 1153
Passive Balancing Transmission......Page 1157
Energy Source......Page 1158
Power Electronics......Page 1159
References......Page 1160
Structure of Photomechanic IR Receptors......Page 1161
Receptor Function......Page 1162
Sensor Without Compensation Leak......Page 1164
Sensor with Compensation Leak......Page 1165
Energy Balance and Pressures for the Adiabatic Cavity......Page 1167
Compensation of Ambient Temperature Changes......Page 1171
References......Page 1172
The Insect Visual Pathway......Page 1173
Artificial Compound Eyes......Page 1174
Flight Control......Page 1175
Collision Avoidance......Page 1176
Economical Place and Pattern Recognition......Page 1177
Synonyms......Page 1178
Introduction......Page 1179
In Silico Mathematical Modeling......Page 1180
Microfluidic Chips and Intravital Microscopy......Page 1187
Cross-References......Page 1188
Overview......Page 1189
Capacitive MEMS Microphones......Page 1190
d33 Mode......Page 1191
d31 Mode......Page 1192
Summary......Page 1193
References......Page 1194
Definition......Page 1195
Methodology......Page 1196
Nanostructures as Passive Elements......Page 1199
A Developing Field......Page 1200
Interface Excess Free Energy......Page 1201
Principle of Operation......Page 1202
Elastic Loading......Page 1204
Viscous Loading......Page 1205
Micromachined Quartz Resonator Arrays......Page 1206
Investigation of Interfacial Layer: Protein Adsorption Studies......Page 1207
Future Directions for Research......Page 1212
Synonyms......Page 1213
Fluorescence......Page 1214
Fluorophores......Page 1215
Sectioning......Page 1216
Confocal Microscopy......Page 1217
Two-Photon Microscopy......Page 1218
Applications......Page 1219
Perspectives......Page 1222
Isothermal Calorimetry......Page 1223
Overview......Page 1224
Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy Principles......Page 1225
Applications of KPFM......Page 1226
Cross-References......Page 1229
Kinetic Monte Carlo Method......Page 1230
Overview......Page 1232
C. elegans Physiology......Page 1233
C. elegans as a Model Organism......Page 1234
Worm Chip Technical Challenges......Page 1235
Immobilization of Single Animals: Suction Pipette, Glue, Physical Restraint (Worm Trap), Suction Microchannel (Aspiration)......Page 1236
Immobilization of Multiple Animals: Arrays of Worm Traps, Chip-Gel Hybrid......Page 1238
No Immobilization: Microchamber for Small Volume Liquid Culture, CD Platform, Droplet Generator, Artificial Dirt......Page 1239
Future Directions of Research......Page 1240
References......Page 1242
Principle of Operation......Page 1243
Methods of Fabrication......Page 1245
Examples of Application......Page 1247
Lesson from Nature......Page 1248
Nanoparticle Synthesis Via Citrate Reduction......Page 1249
Biological Characterization of the Nanoshuttle......Page 1250
Optical Characterization of the Nanoshuttle......Page 1251
Future Directions for Research......Page 1252
Major Physical Principles......Page 1253
Sub-wavelength Waveguiding......Page 1254
Plasmon Nanofocusing......Page 1257
References......Page 1259
The Ternary System BxCyNz Nanotubes......Page 1260
Selectively Doped CBx and CNx Nanotubes......Page 1261
Direct Synthesis: Chemical Vapor Deposition......Page 1262
Direct Synthesis: Arc-Discharge and Laser-Ablation......Page 1263
Post-synthetic Nanotube-Substitution Reaction Route......Page 1264
Depth of Characterizations: Bonding Environments and Dopant Distribution......Page 1265
Electrical Transport Properties......Page 1266
References......Page 1267
Historical Background......Page 1269
Methods of Liposome Preparation......Page 1270
A Proposed Mechanism for MLV Formation......Page 1271
Biological and Medical Applications of Liposomes......Page 1272
Liquid Film......Page 1274
Introduction......Page 1275
Modeling of Contact Angle for a Liquid in Contact with a Rough Surface......Page 1276
Composite (Cassie-Baxter) Interface......Page 1277
Stability of a Composite Interface and Role of Hierarchical Structure......Page 1278
Ideal Surfaces with Hierarchical Structure......Page 1279
Artificial Lotus-Effect Surfaces......Page 1280
Lumbricidae/Oligochaeta/Earthworms......Page 1284
Introduction......Page 1286
Protein Crystallization Theory......Page 1287
Protein Crystallization Methods......Page 1288
The Use of Microarrays for Nano-crystallization......Page 1290
Implementation of the Liquid Diffusion Crystallization Method Using Microfluidics......Page 1291
Implementation of Batch Crystallization Method Using Microfluidics......Page 1293
Implementation of the Dialysis Crystallization Method Using Microfluidics......Page 1295
Future Trends......Page 1297
References......Page 1298
Synonyms......Page 1299
Shape Anisotropy......Page 1300
Interlayer Exchange Anisotropy......Page 1301
Tunneling Magnetoresistance......Page 1302
Spin-Torque Effects and Devices......Page 1304
Semiconductor Spintronics......Page 1305
Data Storage and Patterned Media......Page 1306
Synonyms......Page 1307
Overview......Page 1308
Key Findings......Page 1309
Single-Electron MRFM......Page 1310
Nano-MRI......Page 1311
Comparison to Other Techniques......Page 1312
Outlook......Page 1313
References......Page 1314
Synonyms......Page 1315
Static Self-Assembly of Single Magnetic Components......Page 1316
Static Self-Assembly of Multiple Components......Page 1317
Dynamic Self-Assembly at a Liquid-Air Interface......Page 1320
Artificial Microswimmers for Cargo Transport......Page 1321
Magnetophoretic Cell Manipulation......Page 1322
Magnetic Assembly for Microelectronics and Microrobotics......Page 1324
References......Page 1325
Maxwell-Schrödinger Simulations (or Equations)......Page 1326
Maxwell-Wagner Effect......Page 1327
Metal-Insulator-Metal System......Page 1328
Metal-Double-Layer-Metal System (2-Electrode System)......Page 1329
Maxwell-Wagner Effect as Interfacial Polarization Phenomena......Page 1330
Double-Layer Devices [14, 15, 16, 17]......Page 1331
OFET Devices [18, 19, 20]......Page 1332
Transient Charge Accumulation Process [18, 19, 20]......Page 1333
References......Page 1335
Synonyms......Page 1336
Hierarchical Structures Overcome Strength Limits......Page 1337
Silk......Page 1340
Collagen-Based Protein Materials......Page 1342
References......Page 1345
Definition......Page 1346
Apparent Activation Energy......Page 1347
Crystal Imperfections......Page 1348
Creep Behavior......Page 1349
Yield Strength and Hardness......Page 1350
Deformation Processes......Page 1351
Ductility......Page 1352
Superplasticity......Page 1353
Evidence of Dislocations Activity During Deformation......Page 1355
MEMS: Micro-electro-mechanical Systems......Page 1356
Principle and Application of Adaptive Optics (AO)......Page 1357
Structure of MEMS DMs......Page 1359
Surface Micromachined Continuous Surface MEMS Mirrors......Page 1360
Aberrations......Page 1362
Adaptive Optics Confocal Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopes (AOCSLO)......Page 1363
AO for Microscopy......Page 1365
Wavefront Sensing......Page 1366
Extreme AO......Page 1367
Other MEMS AO Applications......Page 1368
References......Page 1369
Introduction......Page 1370
Light Modulation and Electro-Mechanics......Page 1371
Packaging......Page 1374
mirasol Display Fabrication......Page 1375
Comparison to Other MEMS Display Technologies......Page 1376
References......Page 1377
Definition......Page 1378
Conventional Packaging Technology......Page 1379
Probe Cards for Matrix Pads......Page 1380
Solder Bump Technology......Page 1381
MEMS Technology for Matrix Pads......Page 1382
Summary......Page 1383
References......Page 1384
Brain Monitoring Technologies......Page 1386
General Features of Neural Probes......Page 1387
Bulk Micromachining of MEMS Neural Probes......Page 1388
SUMMiTTM Surface Micromachining Process......Page 1389
MEMS Neural Probes with Electrostatic Microactuators......Page 1392
References......Page 1393
Introduction......Page 1394
Microbolometers on Flexible Substrates......Page 1396
Pressure/Tactile Sensors on Flexible Substrates......Page 1398
Accelerometers on Flexible Substrates......Page 1399
Other MEMS on Flexible Substrates......Page 1400
References......Page 1401
General Requirements for MEMS Packaging......Page 1402
Cost-Effectiveness......Page 1403
Inertial Sensors......Page 1404
Fluidics/Bio Applications......Page 1405
RF MEMS......Page 1406
Thin-Film Packaging......Page 1407
Die-Level Packaging......Page 1408
Definition......Page 1410
Vacuum Electron Devices......Page 1411
Scandia-Doped Tungsten Nano-composite Cathodes´ Development at Beijing Vacuum Electronics Research Institute and Beijing University of Technology......Page 1412
Circuit Fabrication Methods/MEMS Fabrication......Page 1413
KMPR LIGA......Page 1414
Si DRIE......Page 1415
Nano-Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) Milling......Page 1416
Nano-Klystron at Jet Propulsion Laboratory, CA, USA......Page 1417
References......Page 1418
Meniscus Adhesion......Page 1419
Overview of Micro- and Nanofluidics......Page 1420
Nanofluidics: Mimicking Nature......Page 1421
The Impact of Micro- and Nanofluidic Devices in Medical Diagnostics......Page 1422
Infectious Diseases......Page 1423
Advantages of Microfluidic and Nanofluidic Technologies over Standard Technologies......Page 1424
Regulation of Diagnostic Devices......Page 1425
Definition......Page 1426
muPIV......Page 1427
X-Ray and IR muPIV......Page 1428
Confocal and Scanning Confocal muPIV......Page 1429
Stereo muPIV......Page 1430
Particle Image Defocusing......Page 1431
References......Page 1432
Overview......Page 1433
Method......Page 1435
Electrochemistry......Page 1437
Charge Transport......Page 1438
Biofilm Growth and Species Transport......Page 1440
Key Research Findings......Page 1441
Micro/Nanosystems......Page 1442
Introduction......Page 1443
Mechanics of Cantilever Deflection......Page 1444
Design and Fabrication of Piezoresistive Cantilever Arrays......Page 1445
Examples of Chemical and Biological Detection......Page 1446
References......Page 1448
Mold Preparation......Page 1449
Printing Process......Page 1450
Indirect Patterning of Proteins......Page 1452
Indirect Patterning of Cells......Page 1453
Nanorods and Nanotubes......Page 1454
Cross-References......Page 1455
Micro-fabricated MVED (Microwave Vacuum Electron Devices)......Page 1456
Fabrication and Evaluation of Apertured Probe for NSOM......Page 1457
Imaging Using the Apertured Probe......Page 1459
Quartz-Crystal SPM Probe......Page 1460
Design and Fabrication of Quartz Cantilever Sensors......Page 1461
Evaluation of Quartz-Crystal Sensor......Page 1463
References......Page 1465
Overview......Page 1466
Types of Whole-Cell Biosensor......Page 1467
Detection Methods......Page 1468
Lab-On-a-Chip Device Integration......Page 1469
References......Page 1470
Force Sensor Applications......Page 1471
Optical and Piezoelectric Transduction Methods......Page 1473
Capacitive Method......Page 1474
Circuitry......Page 1476
Flexure Member Design......Page 1477
Calibration......Page 1478
Cross-References......Page 1479
Micro-patterning......Page 1480
Mechanical Pumps......Page 1481
Piezoelectric Actuation......Page 1482
Bimetallic, Shape Memory Alloy, and Chemical Actuation......Page 1483
Electroosmotic (EO) Micropumps......Page 1484
Characterizing Micropump Performance......Page 1485
References......Page 1486
Definition......Page 1487
Basic Methodology......Page 1488
Key Research Findings......Page 1489
References......Page 1491
Introduction and Historical Landmarks......Page 1492
Modeling Avascular Tumors......Page 1493
Modeling Angiogenesis......Page 1495
Models at the Cellular Scale......Page 1496
Therapy and Multiscale Models......Page 1498
References......Page 1499
Definition......Page 1500
Molecular Logic Gates......Page 1501
DNA Computing......Page 1502
Perspectives......Page 1504
Definitions......Page 1505
Overview of Molecular Dynamics Simulations......Page 1506
Interactions of Carbon NPs with Biological Molecules......Page 1508
MD Simulations of a Carbon NP Nanobiosensor......Page 1509
MD Simulations of C60 Embedded in Potassium Channels......Page 1510
Functionalized NPs with Lipids......Page 1511
Summary and Future Directions......Page 1512
References......Page 1513
Survey of Experiments......Page 1514
Constitutive Simulation Approach......Page 1515
Reactive Molecular Dynamics Simulation Approach......Page 1516
References......Page 1517
Definition......Page 1518
Optical Mechanism......Page 1519
Theoretical Work......Page 1520
Electron-Beam Lithography......Page 1523
Nanoimprinting/Nanoimprint Lithography......Page 1524
Nanosphere Lithography......Page 1525
Applications......Page 1526
References......Page 1527
Multistage Delivery System......Page 1528
Porous Silicon Particles as First Stage Vectors......Page 1529
Candidates for Stage Two Vectors......Page 1532
References......Page 1534
Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs)......Page 1535
Introduction......Page 1536
EDL and Van der Waals Interactions......Page 1537
Evanescent-Wave Particle Velocimetry......Page 1538
Particle Distributions......Page 1539
Examples of Application......Page 1540
Nanoassembly......Page 1541
Introduction......Page 1542
Thermometry......Page 1545
Principle of Measurement......Page 1546
Differential Scanning Calorimetry......Page 1547
Isothermal Calorimetry......Page 1548
Low Temperature Calorimetry......Page 1549
Other Methods......Page 1550
Micro- and Nanosensors......Page 1551
Silicon, Silicon Nitride, or Diamond Membranes......Page 1552
References......Page 1553
Overview......Page 1555
Historical Perspective......Page 1556
Ion Beam Lithography (IBL)......Page 1557
Sacrificial Technique......Page 1558
Nanomolding Techniques......Page 1559
Miscellaneous Top-Down Techniques......Page 1560
Electrochemical Synthesis......Page 1561
Nanotubes: Carbon Nanotubes and Nanowires......Page 1562
Future Directions......Page 1563
Nanocrystalline Materials......Page 1564
Overview......Page 1565
Biocompatibility......Page 1566
Key Research Findings......Page 1567
Future Research......Page 1568
Definition......Page 1569
Overview......Page 1570
Basic Nanoencapsulation Techniques......Page 1571
Chemical Processes......Page 1573
Physicochemical Processes......Page 1574
Physicomechanical Processes......Page 1575
Applications......Page 1578
Food Industry......Page 1579
References......Page 1580
What Is Nano-concrete?......Page 1581
Understanding the Structure at the Nano-level and ``Bottom-Up´´ Design......Page 1582
Performance of Concrete with Nanoparticles......Page 1583
Tailoring of Nanoparticles for Optimal Performance......Page 1585
Application of Carbon Nanotubes and Carbon Nanofibers......Page 1586
Cross-References......Page 1588
References......Page 1589
Micelle Nanolithography......Page 1590
Nanomolding and Nanostamping......Page 1591
Cell Engineering with Nanopatterned Gels......Page 1592
References......Page 1593
Nanofluidics......Page 1594
Advantages and Disadvantages......Page 1595
Methods of Fabrication......Page 1596
Methods of Fabrication......Page 1597
Overlapping Electrical Double Layers......Page 1598
Measurement Methods......Page 1599
One- and Two-Dimensional Nanogap Biosensors......Page 1601
References......Page 1602
Overview......Page 1603
Design Considerations......Page 1604
Scaling, Surface Forces, and Pick and Place......Page 1605
Environment and Microscopy......Page 1606
Electrostatic Nanogrippers......Page 1607
Electrostatic Actuation......Page 1608
Batch-Fabricated Grippers......Page 1609
Electrothermal Actuation......Page 1611
Topology Optimization......Page 1612
Nanoengineering of End-Effectors......Page 1614
Applications......Page 1615
Quasi 0D Structures: Particles......Page 1616
Quasi 1D Structures: Fibers, Wires, and Tubes......Page 1617
References......Page 1619
Synonyms......Page 1620
Thermoplastic Resist Materials......Page 1621
Nanoimprinting Mold......Page 1623
Variation of Nanoimprinting......Page 1624
MII......Page 1625
Future Directions for Nanoimprinting......Page 1626
Overview......Page 1627
Nanoindentation Apparatus......Page 1628
The Indenters......Page 1629
Analysis of Indentation Data......Page 1630
Examples of Measured Mechanical Properties......Page 1634
Nanojoining......Page 1647
Need for Energy Storage Devices......Page 1648
Recent Trends in Electrical Energy Storage Devices......Page 1649
Li-Ion Batteries......Page 1650
Electrochemical Capacitors......Page 1653
Fuel Cell......Page 1654
Challenges......Page 1657
References......Page 1658
Classification of Excitonic Solar Cells (XSCs)......Page 1660
Classification by the Type of p-n Junction......Page 1661
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSC)......Page 1663
Organic Solar Cells (OSC)......Page 1664
Device configuration......Page 1665
The Benefit of Nanostructuration in XSCs......Page 1666
Future Trends: From Nanomaterials to Large-Scale Printed Devices......Page 1669
References......Page 1670
Overview......Page 1671
Scratch Resistance......Page 1673
Bending Tests of Nanostructures Using an AFM......Page 1674
Elastic Modulus and Bending Strength......Page 1675
Fatigue Strength......Page 1676
Bending Tests of Micro/Nanostructures Using a Nanoindenter......Page 1678
References......Page 1680
Introduction......Page 1681
Nanoresonator Applications Involving Fluid Interaction......Page 1682
Sensing for Fluid Mechanics Research......Page 1683
Interdisciplinary Development of Nanoresonator Sensor Platforms......Page 1684
Measurement Relations......Page 1685
Top-down Methods......Page 1689
Results Using a Hybrid Fabrication Strategy for Nanoresonator Arrays......Page 1691
Summary and Related Reviews......Page 1693
Nanomechanics......Page 1694
Overview......Page 1695
Membrane Integrity......Page 1696
Mitochondrial Function......Page 1697
Suitability for High-Throughput Screening......Page 1698
Oxidative Stress and Inflammation......Page 1699
Dose Metric......Page 1700
Inter-Laboratory Consistency......Page 1701
Nanoparticle Self-Assembly......Page 1702
Principles of Operation and Analysis......Page 1703
Scatter Intensity......Page 1705
Zeta Potential......Page 1706
Concentration and Size Ranges Measurable......Page 1708
Applications of Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis......Page 1709
Synonyms......Page 1711
``Size Effect´´ and Size-Dependent Properties......Page 1712
Top-Down: High-Energy Ball Milling......Page 1714
Bottom-Up: Inert Gas Condensation......Page 1715
Bottom-Up: Sol-gel Synthesis......Page 1716
Characterization of Nanoparticles......Page 1717
Magnetic Nanoparticles......Page 1718
References......Page 1720
Cells Sense and Respond to Their Environment......Page 1721
Fabricating Nanopatterned Substrata......Page 1723
Key Research Findings......Page 1725
Applications......Page 1727
References......Page 1728
Overview......Page 1729
Label-free detection......Page 1730
Fluorescence-based detection......Page 1733
References......Page 1734
Introduction......Page 1735
Plasmon Surface Modes Coupled to Electronic Density Matrices......Page 1736
Maxwell-Schrödinger Simulations......Page 1737
Splitting Fields......Page 1738
Molecule-Mediated Plasmon Transfer in Waveguides......Page 1739
Realistic Simulations......Page 1740
Future Directions......Page 1741
References......Page 1742
Overview......Page 1743
Key Research Findings......Page 1745
Examples of Application......Page 1748
Future Directions for Research......Page 1749
References......Page 1750
Overview......Page 1751
DNA-Based Nanorobots......Page 1752
Cell-Based Nanorobots......Page 1753
References......Page 1754
Nanorobotics......Page 1755
SPM-Based Macroscale Nanorobotics......Page 1756
Synthetic Microscale Nanorobotics: Therapeutic Magnetic Microcarriers (TMMCs)......Page 1760
Biologically Inspired Artificial Microscale Nanorobotics: Artificial Bacterial Flagella (ABF)......Page 1762
Natural Microscale Nanorobotics: Bacterial Nanorobots......Page 1763
Conclusions......Page 1764
Nanorobotics for MEMS and NEMS......Page 1765
Top-down Fabrication of Helical Nanostructures......Page 1766
Mechanical Properties of Helical Structures......Page 1767
Linear-to-Rotary Motion Converter......Page 1768
Examples of Application......Page 1769
References......Page 1771
Synonyms......Page 1772
Patterning with Dip-Pen Nanolithography......Page 1773
Patterning with Soft Lithography Techniques......Page 1774
Molding and Embossing Methods......Page 1775
Nanoimprint Lithography......Page 1776
PRINT......Page 1777
Macroscopic Description of Solid-Liquid Interfaces......Page 1779
Chemical Details of Solid-Water Interfaces......Page 1780
Molecular Ordering in Surface Proximity......Page 1781
Slip Length at Solid-Liquid Interfaces......Page 1782
Self-Diffusion at Solid-Liquid Interfaces......Page 1783
References......Page 1784
Water at the Nanoscale......Page 1785
Stretched Water......Page 1786
Disjoining Pressure......Page 1787
Room Temperature Ice in Capillary Bridges......Page 1788
Water in Confinement......Page 1789
Overview......Page 1790
Nanocrystalline Nano-pillars......Page 1791
Nano-twinned Nano-pillars......Page 1793
Fabrication of Nano-pillars via Electroplating......Page 1794
References......Page 1797
Biomolecular Detection Technologies......Page 1798
Structure......Page 1799
Physics......Page 1800
Specificity......Page 1801
Functionalization Scheme and Receptor Size......Page 1802
Molecular Transport......Page 1803
Nonspecific Adsorption......Page 1805
Nanostructure Contact Printing......Page 1806
Thin-Film Nanowire Suspension......Page 1807
Directed Self-Assembly......Page 1808
Future Directions......Page 1809
References......Page 1810
Overview......Page 1811
Flat Nanostructured Surfaces......Page 1812
Functionalized Nanostructures......Page 1813
Nanografting......Page 1814
SNOM Lithography......Page 1816
Synonyms......Page 1817
Piezoelectric Materials......Page 1818
Carbon Nanomaterials......Page 1820
References......Page 1821
Introduction......Page 1822
Classical and Quantum Size Effects......Page 1824
Micromorphology and Preparations of NTMs......Page 1825
Reducing the Lattice Thermal Conductivity......Page 1826
Suppressing the Bipolar Effect......Page 1827
Several Transformative Concepts......Page 1828
Spin Caloritronics......Page 1829
Topological Insulators......Page 1830
References......Page 1831
Historical Notes......Page 1832
Stain Etching......Page 1833
Metal-Assisted Etching......Page 1834
Pore Size, Morphology, and Orientation......Page 1836
Optical Properties and Photoluminescence......Page 1837
Macroporous Silicon......Page 1838
Porous Silicon Based Photonics......Page 1839
References......Page 1840
Introduction......Page 1841
Multilayer Interference......Page 1842
Scattering......Page 1843
Plants (and Other Nonanimals) with Structural Colors......Page 1844
Tropical Understory Begonias......Page 1845
Plants with Coloration Caused by Diffraction Gratings......Page 1846
Plants with Coloration Caused by Scattering......Page 1847
Diatoms......Page 1848
Plants with Coloration Caused by Cholesteric Liquid Crystals......Page 1849
Ferns......Page 1850
Others......Page 1851
Conclusion and Outlook......Page 1852
Cross-References......Page 1853
Introduction......Page 1854
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSCs)......Page 1856
Energy from Vibrations......Page 1857
Fuel Cells......Page 1858
Lithium-Ion Secondary Batteries......Page 1860
Electrochemical Capacitors......Page 1861
The Impact of Nanostructures on Traditional Energy Sources: An Overview......Page 1862
Cross-References......Page 1863
Overview......Page 1864
Light Generation: Semiconductor Nanocrystals for Lasing Applications......Page 1865
Light Guiding: From Photonic Crystals to Metamaterials......Page 1866
Periodic and Quasiperiodic Fibers......Page 1867
Fishnet Structures: A First Step Toward Metamaterials......Page 1868
Nanoaggregate Array......Page 1871
Nanoantenna Array......Page 1872
Integration of Photonic Crystals and Plasmonic Devices for Label-free Chemical and Structural Detection......Page 1873
Integration of Biophotonic and Superhydrophobic Devices for the Detection of Low-concentrated Biomolecules......Page 1876
References......Page 1878
Surface Modification and Functionalization......Page 1879
Chemical Derivatization or Grafting......Page 1880
Surface Modification: No-Dependence on Materials Chemistry......Page 1886
Materials Surface Modification: Morphology Effects......Page 1888
References......Page 1891
Definition......Page 1892
Overview......Page 1893
Background and Research Expenditures......Page 1895
Applications in Different Fields......Page 1897
Various Issues......Page 1899
References......Page 1900
Definition......Page 1901
Nanotechnology in PCR......Page 1902
Carbon Nanotubes......Page 1903
Other Nanoparticles......Page 1905
References......Page 1906
Overview......Page 1907
Macrophages......Page 1908
Cross-References......Page 1909
Definition......Page 1910
Introduction......Page 1911
Surface Imaging, Friction, and Adhesion......Page 1912
Wear......Page 1915
Boundary Lubrication......Page 1916
Closure......Page 1918
References......Page 1919
Introduction to Microprojector Technology......Page 1920
Synthetic Green Laser Package......Page 1921
Applications of Nano-Tribology......Page 1923
Nanotweezers......Page 1928
Definition......Page 1929
Background and Motivation......Page 1930
Integration with Contour-Mode Technology......Page 1931
MEMS/NEMS Switch-Based Logic Using Body-Biasing......Page 1933
Body-Biased Actuation......Page 1934
AlN Device Scaling and Nano-Actuator Development......Page 1936
References......Page 1938
Definition......Page 1939
Main Text......Page 1940
NEMS Resonant Chemical Sensor Design......Page 1941
NEMS Resonant Chemical Sensor Performance......Page 1943
References......Page 1945
Definition......Page 1946
Nonlinear Optical Processes......Page 1947
Multiphoton Absorption......Page 1948
Induced Thermal Scattering......Page 1949
Z-Scan......Page 1950
Carbon Nanotubes......Page 1952
Bi Nanorods......Page 1954
Surface-Modified NiS2 Nanoparticles......Page 1957
ZnO Nanostructures......Page 1959
Conclusions......Page 1961
Nucleic Acid Amplification......Page 1962
Introduction......Page 1964
Optical Detection......Page 1965
Electrical Detection......Page 1966
Cell Impedance Spectroscopy......Page 1967
Cell Dielectrophoresis......Page 1969
On-Chip Optical Cell Analysis......Page 1970
Dielectrophoretic Sorting Device......Page 1971
References......Page 1974
Key Nanostructures and Relevant Optical and Electronic Properties......Page 1975
Zero-Dimensional Nanostructures: Nanoparticles......Page 1976
One-Dimensional Nanostructures: Nanowires......Page 1978
Two-Dimensional Nanostructures: Thin Films......Page 1979
Three-Dimensional Nanostructured Materials......Page 1981
References......Page 1982
Overview......Page 1983
Photovoltaic Applications......Page 1984
Semiconductor Nanocrystals......Page 1986
Mechanical Behavior......Page 1987
Examples......Page 1989
Technologies......Page 1990
References......Page 1992
Overview......Page 1993
Electric Dipole Approximation and the Parity Selection Rule......Page 1994
Calculating Line Strengths, Emission Rates, and Oscillator Strengths......Page 1995
Radiation from Electric and Magnetic Dipole Emission......Page 1997
Identify Magnetic Transitions......Page 1998
Applications......Page 1999
Future Directions for Research......Page 2000
Definition......Page 2001
Overview......Page 2002
The Dielectric Function......Page 2003
Spheres in the Quasistatic Limit: A Derivation......Page 2004
Nanospheres: A Fully Retarded Solution to Maxwell´s Equations......Page 2006
Shifting the Surface Plasmon Resonance Wavelength......Page 2008
Shells in the Quasistatic Limit......Page 2009
Ellipsoids in the Quasistatic Limit......Page 2010
Numerical Methods to Solve Maxwell´s Equations......Page 2011
DDA: The Discrete Dipole Approximation Method......Page 2012
Implementation of DDA to Calculate the Optical Response of Nanorods......Page 2014
Implementation of DDA to Calculate the Optical Response of Triangular Prisms......Page 2016
Conclusion......Page 2018
References......Page 2019
Microscopy......Page 2020
Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy......Page 2021
Optical Constants and Dielectric Function......Page 2022
Spectroscopic Ellipsometry......Page 2023
Photoluminescence......Page 2024
Photoluminescence Excitation......Page 2025
Time-Resolved Photoluminescence......Page 2026
Raman Scattering......Page 2027
Raman Tensor and Selection Rules......Page 2028
Confocal Raman Microscopy......Page 2029
Surface- and Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy......Page 2030
References......Page 2031
Overview......Page 2032
Choice of Light/Laser Source......Page 2033
Setup of an Experiment......Page 2034
Single Molecular Systems in Optical Tweezers......Page 2035
Optical Stretching of Cells......Page 2038
Holographic Applications of Optical Tweezers......Page 2040
References......Page 2041
Overview......Page 2042
Rapid Electrokinetic Patterning (REP)......Page 2044
Optoelectrowetting (OEW)......Page 2045
REP + O-OEW......Page 2046
OET + OEW......Page 2047
OETs + EW......Page 2049
References......Page 2050
Optical Actuation......Page 2051
Optical Sensing......Page 2052
Gradient Optical Force in Nanophotonic Devices......Page 2053
Examples of Application......Page 2055
Definition......Page 2056
Gel Actuators......Page 2057
Shape Memory Polymer Actuators......Page 2059
Cross-linked Liquid Crystalline Polymer Actuators......Page 2060
Electroactive Polymer Actuators......Page 2063
Future Direction for Research......Page 2064
Synonyms......Page 2065
Basic Methodology......Page 2066
Organic Bioelectronics for Modulation of Cell :Surface Interactions......Page 2067
Organic Bioelectronics for Active 3D Matrix Environments for Cell Interaction......Page 2068
Organic Bioelectronics for Transport and Delivery of Bio-Substances In Vitro and In Vivo......Page 2069
Cross-References......Page 2072
Definition......Page 2073
Organic Photovoltaic Device Configuration......Page 2074
Organic Photovoltaic Materials......Page 2075
Basic Concepts in Organic Photovoltaics......Page 2076
Device Physics......Page 2079
References......Page 2081
Charge Transport in Organic Semiconductors......Page 2082
Organic Thin-Film Transistors (OTFTs)......Page 2083
Organic Sensors......Page 2085
Future Directions for Research......Page 2088
Orientation Sensors......Page 2089
Percutaneous Absorption......Page 2090
Introduction......Page 2091
Molecular Imaging of Therapeutic Response......Page 2092
Targeted Antiangiogenic Therapy......Page 2094
Targeted Antiproliferative Therapy......Page 2097
19F MR Molecular Imaging......Page 2098
Conclusions......Page 2100
References......Page 2101
Introduction......Page 2102
Masks......Page 2103
Soft Baking or Prebaking......Page 2104
Development......Page 2105
Resists......Page 2106
Critical Dimension and Overall Resolution......Page 2107
Next-Generation Lithographies (NGLs) and Lithography Research......Page 2109
LIGA......Page 2110
Introduction......Page 2111
Ultra-High Q Nanobeam Cavities......Page 2112
Applications......Page 2115
References......Page 2119
Definition......Page 2120
PVD by Electron Beam (E-Beam) Evaporation......Page 2121
PVD by Sputtering......Page 2122
PVD by Ion-Beam Sputtering......Page 2123
Examples of PVD Approaches for Nanotechnology......Page 2124
References......Page 2125
Physicochemical Properties of Nanoparticles......Page 2126
Generalities......Page 2127
From Long-Range to Short-Range Orders in Nanomaterials......Page 2128
Electronic Structure and Short-Range Order in Nanomaterials......Page 2129
Effects of Aggregation State and Size......Page 2130
Effects of NPs Shape and Aspect Ratio......Page 2131
From Nanoparticles to Nano-Residues of the Nanomaterials Life Cycle......Page 2133
References......Page 2135
Piezoelectricity......Page 2136
Wurtzite Structure (ZnO, GaN)......Page 2137
Piezoelectric Polymer......Page 2138
Theory of Piezoelectricity in One Dimensional Nanostructures......Page 2140
Size Effect in Perovskite Nanostructures......Page 2141
Applications of Nanoscale Piezoelectric Properties......Page 2142
Piezoelectric Nanogenerator......Page 2143
Piezotronics......Page 2145
Piezotronic Logic Operations......Page 2147
Summary......Page 2149
Definition......Page 2150
History and Brief Background of MEMS Switch Development......Page 2151
Piezoelectricity......Page 2152
Piezoelectric Materials: Ferroelectrics and Non-ferroelectrics......Page 2153
Piezoelectric Switch Actuator History......Page 2155
Switch Scaling......Page 2156
Piezoelectric-Enabled Mechanical Logic......Page 2158
References......Page 2160
Piezoresistive Effect......Page 2161
Theory......Page 2162
Design and Process Effects on Performance......Page 2163
Noise......Page 2164
Carbon Nanotube (CNT)......Page 2165
Accelerometers......Page 2166
References......Page 2167
Principles of PFM......Page 2168
Domain Writing by PFM......Page 2169
PFM Spectroscopies......Page 2170
Switching Spectroscopy Piezoresponse Force Microscopy......Page 2171
More Complex Spectroscopies......Page 2172
PFM of Device Structures......Page 2173
Electrochemical Strain Microscopy......Page 2174
Cross-References......Page 2175
Plasma......Page 2176
Plasmon Resonance Energy Transfer......Page 2177
Theory......Page 2178
PRET-Enabled Biomolecular Absorption Spectroscopy......Page 2179
Near-Infrared PRET......Page 2183
Whole-Field PRET Imaging......Page 2185
Future Directions for Research......Page 2187
References......Page 2189
Introduction......Page 2190
Forward Light Scattering Using Metal Nanostructures......Page 2192
SPP Waveguide-Enhanced Photovoltaics......Page 2193
Enhancement of Third-Generation Approaches......Page 2194
Cross-References......Page 2196
Plasticity of Nanostructured Solids......Page 2197
Plastic Flow of Materials and the Emergence of Size Effects at Small Scales......Page 2198
Strain Gradient Plasticity Theories......Page 2200
Physical Interpretation of the Intrinsic Material Length Scale......Page 2203
References......Page 2204
Overview......Page 2205
Electroplating......Page 2206
Key Research Findings in Nanotechnology......Page 2207
Future Directions for Research......Page 2208
Synonyms......Page 2209
Origin of the Spontaneous Polarization......Page 2210
Charge Carrier Accumulation at Heterostructure Interfaces......Page 2211
Application......Page 2212
High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs)......Page 2213
Electrolyte-Gated Field Effect Transistors......Page 2215
Unintentional Polarization Effects......Page 2216
References......Page 2217
Polymer Coating of Nanoparticles......Page 2218
Natural Biomaterials and Polymers......Page 2219
Methods of Surface Coating......Page 2220
Wet Surface Coating......Page 2221
References......Page 2223
Relevance......Page 2225
Prenucleation Clusters: A Nonclassical Concept......Page 2226
Key Research Findings......Page 2227
Future Directions for Research......Page 2229
References......Page 2230
Pulsed HIFU......Page 2231
Ultrasound and the Nanoparticle Delivery Problem......Page 2232
Basic pHIFU Physics......Page 2233
Biological Impact of pHIFU......Page 2234
References......Page 2236
PZT......Page 2237
Definition......Page 2238
Characteristics of QDs......Page 2239
QD Fabrication......Page 2240
DNA-Directed Self-assembly......Page 2241
APTES-Mediated Molecular Self-assembly......Page 2242
Electrostatic Layer-by-Layer Deposition......Page 2243
Nanoscale QD Photodetector......Page 2244
Quantum Dot Solar Cells......Page 2247
QD Toxicity In Vitro......Page 2248
QD Toxicity In Vivo......Page 2249
References......Page 2250
Overview......Page 2252
Physics of REP Technique......Page 2254
Methodology for REP Operation......Page 2257
Potential Applications of REP Technique......Page 2258
References......Page 2260
Genesis of Reactive Bond-Order Potentials......Page 2261
Parameterization of Additional Atom Types......Page 2263
Limitations......Page 2264
Covalent+Intermolecular Forces......Page 2265
Modeling Reactivity in Systems Containing Charge......Page 2267
Modeling Charge Transfer During Chemical Reactions......Page 2268
Improved Description of Alloys......Page 2269
References......Page 2271
Definition......Page 2272
Methodology......Page 2273
Nanoscale Bending Tests with AFM......Page 2274
Force Measurement......Page 2275
Accuracy of the Measurements......Page 2276
Synonyms......Page 2277
Introduction......Page 2278
Advantages of HNBs as Artificial Flagella......Page 2279
Electromechanical Property......Page 2280
Principle of HNB Electroosmotic Propulsion......Page 2282
Electrokinetic Effect......Page 2284
Swimming Performance Comparison with Other Swimmers......Page 2286
Conclusion......Page 2287
Reversible Adhesion......Page 2288
Overview......Page 2289
RNA Interference: A Shared Strategy to Defend the Genome......Page 2290
Chemical Modifications to the Sugar or Phosphodiester Backbone......Page 2291
Physiological Barriers......Page 2292
Types of Delivery......Page 2293
Aptamers......Page 2294
Liposomal Carriers......Page 2295
Further Reading......Page 2296
Definition......Page 2297
Automated Microrobot-Based Nanohandling......Page 2298
Structure of the Essay......Page 2299
Imaging Source Properties......Page 2300
Two-Dimensional Position Determination and Tracking......Page 2301
Position Control Inside SEM......Page 2303
Vision-Based Closed-Loop Control......Page 2304
AFM as a Nanohandling Robot......Page 2305
Methods for z-Approach of Microgripper and CNT......Page 2308
Placing and Releasing CNTs on the Target Structure......Page 2309
Application Example: Handling of Biological Materials......Page 2310
Manipulation and Handling of Biomaterials Using Atomic Force Microscopy......Page 2311
Handling and Manipulation of DNA......Page 2312
Future Trends......Page 2313
Cross-References......Page 2314
Rolled-Up Nanotechnology......Page 2315
Theoretical......Page 2316
Main Findings......Page 2317
References......Page 2322
Rotation Sensors......Page 2323
Introduction......Page 2324
A Brief History......Page 2325
Instrumentation......Page 2326
Secondary-Electron Signal Generation......Page 2327
Atomic Imaging Using Secondary Electrons......Page 2328
Future Remarks......Page 2330
Synonyms......Page 2331
Key Principles and Concepts......Page 2332
Aperture Probes......Page 2333
Antenna Probes......Page 2334
Instrumentation......Page 2337
Aperture Probes......Page 2338
Fluorescence Microscopy......Page 2339
Elastic Scattering Microscopy......Page 2340
Plasmonics and Photonic Nanostructures......Page 2341
Perspectives......Page 2342
Scanning Probe Microscopy......Page 2343
Thermal Probes......Page 2344
Theoretical Analysis of Heat Transfer Mechanisms......Page 2345
Experimental Characterization of Heat Transfer Mechanisms......Page 2347
Surface Temperature Mapping......Page 2349
Thermal Property Mapping......Page 2350
Summary and Future Directions......Page 2351
Definition......Page 2352
Theory of Tunneling......Page 2353
Electronics and Control System......Page 2356
Vibration Isolation......Page 2357
Setups for Different Environments and Temperatures......Page 2358
Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy......Page 2359
Applications......Page 2361
Tip-Induced Modification......Page 2362
References......Page 2363
Overview......Page 2364
Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy Theory......Page 2365
I-V Curves......Page 2366
I-Z Curves......Page 2367
Z-V Curves......Page 2368
Spin Polarized Tunneling Spectroscopy......Page 2369
Vibrational Spectroscopy (Inelastic Electron Tunneling Spectroscopy)......Page 2370
Scrolled Nanostructure......Page 2372
Definition......Page 2373
Overview......Page 2374
Grazing Incidence......Page 2376
Pattern Analysis......Page 2378
Examples of Application......Page 2379
A Short Introduction to Hard X-Ray Focusing Optics......Page 2380
mu-XRD Setup and Experimental Approach......Page 2382
High-Resolution X-Ray Micro-diffraction (HR - XRD) and Combination with SEM......Page 2384
In Situ Combination of muXRD with Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)......Page 2385
XPEEM Instrumentation and Operating Principle......Page 2386
Examples of Application: Magnetic Imaging......Page 2389
Surface Magnetism in MnAs Thin Films......Page 2391
Micromagnetism of Patterned Nanostructures and Magnetic Tunnel Junction......Page 2392
Future Directions for Research (Outlook)......Page 2393
References......Page 2394
Overview......Page 2395
Hexadecane Thiol and Biphenyl Thiol SAMs on Au(111)......Page 2397
Perfluoroalkylsilane and Alkylsilane SAMs on Si(100), and Perfluoroalkylphosphonate and Alkylphosphonate SAMS on Al......Page 2399
Closure......Page 2403
References......Page 2404
Definition......Page 2405
Introduction......Page 2406
Fluidic Transport-Shape-Matching Alignment......Page 2407
Fluidic Transport-Capillary Forces Alignment......Page 2410
Mechanical Agitation Transport-Capillary Forces Alignment......Page 2417
Mechanical Agitation/Magnetic Forces Transport-Shape-Matching Alignment......Page 2419
References......Page 2421
The Concept of Self-Assembly......Page 2422
Discrete System Versus Continuum System......Page 2423
Forces That Drive Self-assembly......Page 2424
Surface Stress......Page 2425
Guided or Templated Self-assembly......Page 2426
Electric Dipoles......Page 2428
Sequential Activation of Self-assembly......Page 2430
References......Page 2432
Occurrence and Key Findings......Page 2433
Metallic Materials......Page 2434
Surface Healing......Page 2435
References......Page 2436
Photosynthesis: Chloroplast Structure......Page 2437
Natural Self-repair Cycles in Plants......Page 2438
Synthetic Regeneration Cycles in Photoelectrochemical Cells......Page 2440
Understanding and Quantifying the Self-assembly Process......Page 2441
Photoelectrochemical Measurements of Self-assembled Complexes......Page 2442
Cross-References......Page 2444
Sensors......Page 2445
The Shark Skin......Page 2446
Specifications and Fluid Dynamics......Page 2447
Key Research Findings......Page 2448
References......Page 2451
Mechanisms of Fluid Drag and Role of Riblets in Drag Reduction......Page 2452
Optimization of Riblet Geometry......Page 2454
Riblet Fabrication and Applications......Page 2456
Effect of Fish Mucus and Polymers on Fluid Drag......Page 2459
Closure......Page 2461
References......Page 2462
Fundamentals of Bird Flight......Page 2463
Specializations of the Owls´ Plumage......Page 2464
Wind Tunnel Experiments......Page 2465
Microstructures of Owl Feathers......Page 2466
Cross-References......Page 2471
Definition......Page 2472
References......Page 2476
Working Principle......Page 2477
Equivalent Circuit Model......Page 2478
Single-Cell Impedance Spectroscopy on Stationary or Moving Cells......Page 2479
Effect of Electrical Double Layer on Impedance Profile......Page 2480
Definition......Page 2481
Emergence of Size Effects in Single Crystals at the Nanoscale......Page 2482
Experimental Findings......Page 2483
Computational Findings......Page 2484
Discussion: What Causes the Size effect?......Page 2485
Summary......Page 2486
Acknowledgments......Page 2487
Bragg Diffraction......Page 2488
Small-Angle Scattering......Page 2489
Born Approximation and Scattering Length......Page 2490
Structure Factor and Form Factor......Page 2491
Core-Shell Form Factor......Page 2492
Regimes in the Scattering Profile......Page 2493
Generation of Contrast......Page 2495
Neutron Incoherent and Spin Scattering......Page 2496
Unpolarized Neutrons......Page 2497
Summary and Outlook......Page 2499
References......Page 2500
Polymer Science in Medicine......Page 2502
Smart Hydrogels......Page 2503
Temperature-Sensitive Hydrogels......Page 2504
pH-Sensitive Hydrogels......Page 2505
Electro-Responsive Hydrogels......Page 2506
Cross-References......Page 2508
Soil/Terrestrial Ecosystem/Terrestrial Compartment......Page 2509
Overview......Page 2510
Basic Methodology......Page 2512
Key Research Findings......Page 2518
Future Directions for Research......Page 2520
Solid Lipid Nanocarriers......Page 2521
Introduction......Page 2522
Warm Microemulsion Technique......Page 2523
Solvent Emulsification-Diffusion Method......Page 2524
Particle Size, Size Distribution and Shape......Page 2525
Surface Charge......Page 2527
Crystallinity, Polymorphism, Structure, and Stability......Page 2528
Drug Release......Page 2529
Overview......Page 2530
Cancer Therapy......Page 2531
Diseases of the Central Nervous System (CNS)......Page 2532
Gene Therapy......Page 2533
Skin Application......Page 2534
Ocular Topical Administration......Page 2535
Pulmonary Administration......Page 2536
References......Page 2537
Outline......Page 2538
Why Study Spider Silks?......Page 2539
The Importance of Extrusion Spinning......Page 2540
Modeling Approaches......Page 2541
Functional Properties......Page 2542
The Importance of Spinning......Page 2543
Molecular Sequences......Page 2544
Conclusions......Page 2545
Definition......Page 2546
The Bombardier Beetle System and Simulation Work......Page 2547
Overview of the Physical muMist System......Page 2548
Performance of the muMist Spray System......Page 2550
Fuel Injectors......Page 2551
Drug Delivery Systems......Page 2552
Conclusions......Page 2553
Definition......Page 2554
UV Beam Scanning Stereolithography......Page 2555
Two-Photon Stereolithography......Page 2557
Image Projection Stereolithography......Page 2558
References......Page 2560
Electrochemical Dissolution Approach......Page 2561
Electrothermal Activation Approach......Page 2562
Self-regulated Approach......Page 2563
Device Dimension......Page 2564
Definition......Page 2565
The Physical Effects Underlying Structural Colors......Page 2566
Multilayer Structures of Varying Complexity in Natural Photonic Systems......Page 2567
Diffractive Elements......Page 2570
Three-Dimensional Photonic Crystals......Page 2571
Dynamically Variable Structural Colors in Animals......Page 2574
Conclusions......Page 2576
References......Page 2577
Structure......Page 2578
Stability and Mechanical Properties......Page 2580
Definition......Page 2581
Processing of Thick High Aspect Ratio Structures......Page 2582
Layer Deposition......Page 2583
Exposure......Page 2585
Development......Page 2586
Alternative Exposure Methods......Page 2587
Modulation of Exposure Light......Page 2588
Sacrificial Layer-Based Processes......Page 2589
Layer Transfer Processes......Page 2592
References......Page 2593
Sub-wavelength Waveguiding......Page 2594
Overview......Page 2595
Thermodynamic Consideration of the Thermoelastic Martensitic Transformation......Page 2596
Critical Transformation Stress......Page 2597
Maximum Recoverable Strain......Page 2598
Mechanisms of the Shape Memory Effect and Superelasticity......Page 2599
References......Page 2600
Chemical and Physical Principles......Page 2601
Mechanism of Wetting Behaviors on Fish Scales in Oil/Water/Solid System......Page 2602
Biomimetic Hydrogels for Robust Underwater Superoleophobicity......Page 2604
References......Page 2605
Definition......Page 2606
Overview......Page 2607
Computational Approaches......Page 2608
Scanning Probe Microscopy......Page 2609
Ion Scattering......Page 2611
Nanowire Sensors......Page 2612
Nanoscale Catalysts......Page 2613
References......Page 2615
Fundamental Considerations on Surface Energy......Page 2616
Adsorption and Relationship Between Surface Tension and Surface Energy......Page 2617
Surface Energy at the Nanoscale......Page 2618
Minimization Mechanisms for the Energy of the Surface: Role in Nanostructures......Page 2619
Chemical Potential at the Nanoscale and Relationship with Surface Energy......Page 2621
Nanothermodynamics......Page 2623
Surface Force Balance......Page 2624
Normal Distance and Force Measurements......Page 2625
Multiple Beam Interferometry (MBI)......Page 2626
Control of Film Thickness and Contact Area......Page 2627
Shear and Friction Attachments and Measurements......Page 2628
Advances in Distance and Force Measurements......Page 2630
Local Structural Information: Combination of SFA with Other Techniques......Page 2631
Mica and Beyond: Modified and Alternative Substrates......Page 2632
Surface Free Energy and Chemical Potential at Nanoscale......Page 2633
The Dielectric Constant of Metals......Page 2634
Localized Surface Plasmons......Page 2635
Propagating Surface Plasmons......Page 2636
Surface Plasmon-Enhanced Optical Bistability......Page 2638
Long-Range Surface Plasmon-Based Optical Bistability......Page 2639
References......Page 2641
Single-Interface Surface Plasmon-Polariton......Page 2642
Detection Mechanisms......Page 2643
Grating-Coupled Detectors......Page 2645
Hole-Coupled Detectors......Page 2646
Detectors Incorporating Nanoparticles......Page 2647
Waveguide Detectors......Page 2648
References......Page 2649
Overview......Page 2650
Basic Methodology......Page 2652
Elastic Models for the Nanostructures......Page 2656
Surface Tension Effects on the Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures......Page 2657
Surface Tension Effects Induced the Deformation of Nanostructures......Page 2658
Nanostructures of Silicon Used as the Anode Material of Lithium Ion Batteries......Page 2659
Surface Tension Effects Induced the Deflection of the Cantilever Sensor......Page 2660
References......Page 2661
Scaling of Surface Forces in Microchannels and Nanochannels......Page 2662
Methods for Surface Modification......Page 2663
Applications......Page 2664
Introduction......Page 2666
Arc Discharge......Page 2667
Chemical Vapor Deposition......Page 2668
Plasma-Enhanced CVD......Page 2669
Floating Catalyst CVD......Page 2670
Purification......Page 2671
Overview......Page 2672
Spheres......Page 2673
Shells......Page 2674
Nanorods......Page 2676
Platonic Nanoparticles (Polyhedrons)......Page 2677
Gold Nanoplates......Page 2678
References......Page 2680
Overview......Page 2681
Micromechanical Exfoliation of Graphene from Graphite......Page 2682
Epitaxial Growth of Graphene on Silicon Carbide......Page 2683
Reduced Graphene Oxide and Chemically Modified Graphene......Page 2684
Liquid-Phase Exfoliation of Graphene Directly from Graphite......Page 2685
Epitaxial and Large-Area Graphene on Metal Surfaces......Page 2686
Other Novel Advances in Gaphene Synthesis......Page 2687
References......Page 2688
Synthesis of Nanoparticles......Page 2689
Cluster Structure......Page 2690
Photoluminescence......Page 2694
Catalysis......Page 2695
Synthesis of Metal Clusters......Page 2696
Bottom-Up......Page 2697
Cross-References......Page 2698
Synthesized Synaptic Conductance......Page 2699
Gene Circuit Design and Construction......Page 2700
Minimal Life......Page 2701
References......Page 2702
Systems Level Data Mining for RNAi......Page 2703
Definition......Page 2704
Solid-State Electronic THz Sources......Page 2705
Free-Electron-Based Sources......Page 2706
Optical THz Emission Techniques......Page 2707
Terahertz Detection Systems......Page 2708
Spectroscopic Sensing and Imaging......Page 2711
THz Near-Field Imaging and THz Microscopy......Page 2714
THz Communication......Page 2715
Further Reading......Page 2717
Introduction......Page 2718
Constitutive Relations and Effective Properties......Page 2719
Periodic Structures......Page 2722
Retrieval Using the Dispersion Relation......Page 2723
Retrieval Using Reflection and Transmission Data from a Slab......Page 2725
Retrieving Properties of Individual Meta-atoms......Page 2727
Mixing Rules......Page 2728
References......Page 2730
Compliant Structures......Page 2731
Heat Transfer: Fundamental Concepts......Page 2732
Heat Transfer: Environment Effects on Actuation......Page 2733
Applications......Page 2734
Example 1: V-Type Actuators......Page 2735
Thermal Calculation......Page 2737
Analysis of Mechanical Behavior......Page 2739
Electrical Analysis......Page 2741
Thermal Analysis......Page 2742
Analysis of Mechanical Behavior......Page 2743
Example 3: Thermal Bimorph Actuators......Page 2745
Miniaturization......Page 2746
Cross-References......Page 2747
Overview......Page 2748
Invasive Thermal Ablation Therapies......Page 2749
Roles for Nanotechnology in Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy......Page 2750
Nanoparticle-Based Thermal Tumor Ablation Strategies......Page 2751
Definition......Page 2755
Overview......Page 2756
Heat Transport by Phonons in Nonmetallic Solids......Page 2757
Thermal Conductivity Reduction in Nanostructures......Page 2759
Modern Techniques for Measurements of the Thermal Conductivity of Nanostructures......Page 2760
Cross-References......Page 2761
Thermally Actuated Nanoelectromechanical Resonators......Page 2762
Introduction......Page 2763
High-Frequency Thermal-Piezoresistive Resonators: Principles of Operation and Modeling......Page 2764
Resonator Scaling Behavior and Optimization......Page 2767
Self-Sustained Thermal-Piezoresistive Oscillators......Page 2770
Thermal-Piezoresistive Resonant Mass Sensors......Page 2773
References......Page 2774
Introduction......Page 2775
Theory......Page 2778
Bottom-Up Approaches......Page 2779
Top-Down Approaches......Page 2781
Theory......Page 2786
Bismuth Nanowires......Page 2788
Experimental Results on Bi Nanowires......Page 2789
Metallic Wires......Page 2790
References......Page 2791
Thermometry......Page 2792
Introduction......Page 2793
Growth of Anodic TiO2 Nanotube Arrays......Page 2795
Growth of Templated TiO2 Nanotube Arrays......Page 2797
Orthopedic Implant Applications......Page 2799
TiO2 Nanotube Arrays for Stem-Cell Differentiation......Page 2801
TNAs for Oxidative Photochemistry......Page 2802
TiO2 Nanotube Arrays as Scaffolds in Excitonic Solar Cells......Page 2803
TNA-Based Ultrasensitive H2 gas Sensors......Page 2804
References......Page 2805
Introduction......Page 2806
Surface Structuring of Solar Cells......Page 2808
Biotemplating of Photoanodes......Page 2809
Concluding Remarks......Page 2811
References......Page 2813
Impact on Plant Development......Page 2814
Uptake and Translocation......Page 2815
Impact on Plant Physiology......Page 2816
References......Page 2817
The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)......Page 2818
Magnetic Electron Lenses......Page 2819
Contrast Mechanisms in Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 2820
Dark Field Imaging......Page 2821
Phase Contrast Imaging......Page 2822
Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 2823
Electron Diffraction......Page 2824
Analytical Electron Microscopy......Page 2825
Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy......Page 2826
Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy......Page 2829
Introduction......Page 2831
Mechanisms of Spark Plasma Sintering......Page 2832
Using SPS to Tailor CNT Morphology......Page 2833
Inter-tube and Inter-shell Junctions......Page 2834
Doping CNTs......Page 2836
References......Page 2838
Applications......Page 2840
Size-Effect Implications......Page 2841
Single Point Diamond Turning......Page 2842
Nanolapping and Nanopolishing......Page 2843
Aspherical Lens Polishing......Page 2844
Nanochemical or Electrochemical Processing......Page 2845
Chemical Cutting......Page 2846
Individualization of US-tubes......Page 2848
Functionalization of US-tubes......Page 2849
Computed Tomography (CT) Agents......Page 2850
Free Radical Scavengers......Page 2851
References......Page 2852
Definition......Page 2853
Basic Equipment......Page 2854
Mechanism of Removal......Page 2855
Process Parameters......Page 2856
Summary......Page 2858
US-Tubes......Page 2859
Introduction......Page 2860
Deformation Under Large Strain......Page 2863
Modeling of VACNT Deformation......Page 2864
Viscoelasticity......Page 2866
Applications......Page 2867
Summary and Outlook......Page 2868
References......Page 2869
Visual Servoing for SEM......Page 2870
Definition......Page 2872
Path Similarity......Page 2873
Path Complexity......Page 2875
Path Predictability......Page 2876
Wet Chemical Processing......Page 2879
Anisotropic Wet Etching......Page 2880
Definition......Page 2881
Wetting of Rough Surfaces and Wetting States......Page 2882
Energetic Approach to Wetting Transitions......Page 2884
The Concept of the Critical Pressure......Page 2885
The ``Dimension´´ of Wetting Transitions......Page 2886
References......Page 2887
Overview......Page 2888
Optical Resonator Physics: Confining Light at High Q-Factor......Page 2889
Principles of Resonant WGM Biosensing......Page 2890
WGM Biosensing: Reactive Sensing Principle......Page 2891
WGM Biosensing: Label-free Analysis of Homogenous Molecular Binding Events......Page 2892
Implementation and Operation of a WGM Resonator Biosensor......Page 2895
Resonator Geometry......Page 2896
Disk and Ring Resonators......Page 2897
Spheres and Spheroids......Page 2898
Sensor Arrays......Page 2899
Worm Chip......Page 2900
X-ray Diffraction with Micron-Sized X-Ray Beams......Page 2902
Youngs Modulus......Page 2904
List of Entries......Page 2906